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Summary POLITICS A LEVEL PAPER 1 POLITICAL IDEAS ESSAY PLANS (PEARSON EDEXCEL)
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Core essay plans for liberalism, conservatism, and socialism Written by 2 A* students
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Liberalism questionsTWE do liberals agree upon human nature?
Rationalism
Requirement of state interference
Equality / social justice
Rationalism
Both sets of liberals view humans as rational, guided by self-interest and reason
Beginning in the period of the Enlightenment, liberalism marked a major shift in
how human nature was viewed and understood. Rather than a view of human
nature rooted in Christianity and the idea of original sin, liberals such as John
Locke argued that humans are rational and guided by reason.
o They therefore saw human nature in a very optimistic light, emphasising
humans’ ability to achieve individual and societal progress through
analysing problems and proposing solutions. Rather than accepting God’s
will, liberals therefore argued that individuals could shape their own
outcomes. They argued they would do this in a self-interested manner, but
that rationality and virtuous impulses would mean they were also
reasonable and not too competitive/destructive of each other.
o This optimistic, rationalistic view of human nature was key to Locke’s
political views. He rejected the 17th century structure of authority based in
divine right and argued instead for authority being based on a Social
Contract between the state and the governed, which individuals would
only submit to if it was rational to do so and the state would serve their
interests.
o This also influenced John Rawls’ political views in Theory of Justice. He
argued that faced with a ‘veil of ignorance’, according to which individuals
wouldn’t know where they would end up in a society, they would choose a
society which is much more equal and gives much more support to the
disadvantaged, due to human nature being rational and empathetic.
There is, however, disagreement on how much the state should intervene in
individuals seeking their full potential
Social injustice
Modern liberal thinkers found a problem with the classical liberal thinkers’ view of
‘foundational equality’
They largely ignored (apart from Mill) gender and racial inequality. People like
John Locke are more focussed on religious divisions; during his times (17th
century), there was little focus on race and gender. Modern liberalism is the
strand of liberalism most associated with supporting foundational equality.
Thinkers like Mary Wollstonecraft highlighted this idea that women are held back
from society and are unable to access their full potential
She criticized society in preventing women from accessing their full potential by
treating them as though they were irrational
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, Women were treated as second class citizens and not granted the freedoms as
men were or treated as rational beings in the same way.
They were rarely able to access paid employment or own land, whilst sacrificing
the little individualism and freedom they had when entering marriage.
Women were therefore unable to use their rationality for self-improvement as
men were.
Wollstonecraft argued for women to be treated as rational beings (e.g. By
granting them education)
MLK argued that black Americans do not receive equality of opportunity
Argued that the state should intervene so that they are able to unlock full
potential (e.g. By granting black Americans the same civil rights as white
Americans
Requirement of state interference (negative / positive freedom)
Though all liberals are driven by a view of human nature rooted in individualism
and the rational pursuit of self-interest, there is a key disagreement as to the
extent of this individualism and the extent to which individuals are able to pursue
their goals without the help of the state.
o Classical liberals were driven by a view of freedom as negative freedom,
which saw freedom as the absence of restraint and argued that individuals
should largely be left alone to pursue their own self-interest.
John Locke, for example, emphasise ‘self-help’ whereby individuals
should be able to help themselves without help from the state and
argued for a limited, ‘nightwatchman’ state that only adjudicated
disputes when necessary and interfered little in people’s lives.
o In the 19th century, John Stuart Mill developed this classical liberal
approach to individualism somewhat in his shift to ‘individuality’ and
developmental individualism. Mill didn’t just see liberty as a right, but also
as a driver of human development and consequently didn’t just want to
grant individuals freedom at present, but also ponder what individuals
could become.
To do this, Mill promoted universal education in order to allow
individuals to reach their potential. Wollstonecraft showed a similar
emphasis on the role of education in promoting the rationality and
individualism of women.
o In contrast to classical liberals, modern liberals in the 20th century were
driven by a view of freedom as positive freedom. This saw freedom and
individualism not just as the absence of restraint, but in terms of having
the resources and power to pursue one’s goals. Economically
disadvantaged people, for example, aren’t free if they’re simply left alone.
Humans therefore needed help from the state in order to pursue their self-
interest.
John Rawls drew a distinction between legal equality and
‘foundational equality’, arguing that individuals also needed greater
social and economic equality in order to be free. In order to
promote this freedom, he argued for an enabling state which used
significant progressive taxation and extensive public service
provision in order to help the most disadvantaged and give them a
basic level of economic freedom in order to pursue their self-
interest as rational individuals.
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, TWE do liberals agree on economy
State intervention
Property ownership
Taxation
State intervention
Both agree that free market promotes economic activity and the creation of
wealth but disagree on the extent of government or state intervention.
Classical liberals: laissez-faire
o State is rarely justified in intervening in the economy
o Pioneered by Adam Smith
o Promotes a limited nightwatchman state
o JS Mill: laissez faire promotes individual initiative and progress to ensure
that individuals make economic decisions in their own best interests
Neo-liberals agree: Nozick, Rand
Modern liberals: Keynesianism
o Belief of an enabling state
o A Keynesian economy allows the government to manage demand by
controlling supply
o It also stimulates the economy to provide employment opportunities and
avoid economic slumps
o The aim of a Keynesian economy is to maintain equilibrium
o Keynesian economy would also assist those struggling as a result of the
injustices caused by capitalism
o Disraeli
Overall: fundamental disagreement on how the state should intervene in the
economy
Property ownership
Both strands believe that the possession of private property and property
ownership is necessary and a natural right
John Locke argues that property is a natural right
The state should not infringe on this natural right but should merely act as a
“umpire” between individuals competing for property and resources.
He also believes in inheritance and does not believe in inheritance tax as a form
of state intervention
Those who work hard for property deserve to keep it, the inheritants do not
deserve to be punished by inheritance tax
Similarly, modern liberalism argues that property ownership is necessary
Rawles believes that private property is a good incentive for people to work
towards goals and achieve
Mill believed in inheritance tax as he believes in redistribution of wealth (modern
liberalism)
Taxation
Fundamental disagreement
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