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Summary Media and Communication - Book all chapters
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Summary of all the chapters of the book the The Psychology of Influence by van der Pligt and Vliek.
[Meer zien]Voorbeeld 4 van de 34 pagina's
Voorbeeld 4 van de 34 pagina's
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1The Psychology of Influence
Chapter 1 Influence: definition, history and a model
Marketing is all about persuasion in where a message should form a specific attitude, which is an
evaluative response to a product, person, situation (attitude object).
Advertising: to turn towards/to change; to influence others in the hope of encouraging a specific
type of behaviour; calling attention to something: it’s notifying or warning other people, often by
means of a public medium. Information in many forms is used to accomplish this.
Interest in persuasion spiked during the Industrial Revolution, since more and more products and
services became available. Emphasis in research was first on linguistics, then on process analysis.
Laswell (1949) formulated a model of communication.
Hovland started testing hypotheses characteristics of message, source and recipient (chapter 2). They
discovered a difference between direct and indirect impact of messages. They developed a four-step
process model of persuasion, based on their findings concerning attitudinal and behavioural change:
1. People must pay attention to a message
2. The message has to be understood
3. The recipient has to accept the message and change their attitude accordingly.
4. Attitude must be retained in order to change behaviour
Factors that influence the likelihood of completion of the
model are the source of information, the recipients’
willingness to pay attention and the content of the message.
Together, these steps form the Yale model of persuasion.
This model fails to explain how the recipient processes the
information.
McGuire (1964) looks into how people can arm themselves against information intended to influence
them. He proposes a six-step model which is more dynamic (presentation, attention, comprehension,
yielding, retention and behaviour). Greenwald (1968) developed McGuire’s ideas in his cognitive
response theory: how is information processed, how does that affect attitudes and how does this
relate to existing attitudes?
How to influence a recipient through persuasion: AIDA Model by Strong (1925).
A: attention; I: interest; D: desire; A: action; / (S): satisfaction: was added later to account for
customer loyalty.
Chapter 2 Attitudes and behaviour
Influence focuses on changing attitudes, which can alter behaviour.
Attitudes refer to evaluative responses to a stimulus, the attitude object.
Can be person, organisation, situation, product or an idea.
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Attitudes are hard to measure because it is a latent construct: the actual attitude is not directly
observable, and has to be inferred from visible responses. So, we only have an indication of
someone’s attitude.
An attitude can be divided into three components:
Cognitive response (beliefs, opinions): the conscious thoughts evoked by characteristics of
an attitude object. Use these to form evaluative judgments.
Affective response (feelings, emotions): the feelings, emotions and sentiments an object
evokes, either expressed or in the form of a physiological response. Instinctive and coincide
with cognitions.
Behavioural response (actions, conduct): physical actions that are evoked by the object
(consumer buying habits, eating, interpersonal activities)
Stimuli representing attitude object (observable) => Attitude (inferable) => 1. Cognitive response, 2.
Affective response, 3. Behavioral response
Three responses are all interconnected, can complement or contradict each other
If you want to influence others, know what their attitude is based on, no point in addressing
cognitive factors when someone is focused on affective factors. Much behaviour is influenced by
affective responses, especially when it comes to health behaviour.
Five characteristics of attitudes
1. Focus on object, person, organisation, event
2. They are evaluative: positive or negative
3. Based on (in whole or in part):
a. Cognitive beliefs about attitude object;
b. Affective responses to attitude object.
4. Have repercussions for behaviour
Reasoned and intuitive attitudes – Dual-process models
Attitudes can be formed through 2 dual-process models of processing information
with a high or low degree of thought:
The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) – Petty & Cacioppo, 1984
Motivation is the most important factor determining how information is processed. It
states that attitudes can be formed and changed through 2 routes:
Central route: attitudes are formed/modified after consideration and analysis
of the core characteristics of the attitude object, more critical (when
something is really important, it takes more time)
Peripheral route: attitudes are formed by drawing on characteristics of the
attitude object or the situation such as the source of info, which are only
indirectly relevant for the issue, less critical (based on indirectly relevant
things such as number of arguments, expertise of the persuader).
Through which system information if processes, depends on factors such as amount of
time available, motivation, ability to analyse all arguments, need for cognition (=
individual differences in the degree to which people are inclined to analyse things and
enjoy cognitive tasks).
Heuristic-systematic model (HSM) – Chaiken, 1999
,3
Distinguishes between deep and superficial (heuristic) information processing. The difference with
ELM is the manner in which the 2 routes influence each other. ELM hold the routes are mutually
exclusive (you use one or the other), whereas HSM states that both routes can be taken
simultaneously.
System 1 and system 2 – Kahneman, 2011
System 1: intuitive and quick thinking (intuition)
o Fast, automatic, parallel, little effort, associative, affectively charged.
System 2: analytical and relatively slow thinking (reasoning)
o Slow, controlled, serial, much effort, reasoned, neutral.
How an attitude is formed, affects its strength:
Strong/reasoned attitudes: reasoned, cognitive consideration. Often clear, behavioural
repercussions and influence the way we act. Less ambivalent.
Intuitive attitudes: instinctive. Less robust to change and less behavioural repercussions.
Take longer to be anchored in out memory (one case of food poisoning doesn’t mean you’ll
never get it again)
The more motivated people are, the more time and ability people have, the more likely they are to
consider the material at length and put more into processing an attitude object
=> central route or system 2 will be used
Measuring attitudes and behaviour done in the following ways:
1. Likert scale: from 1-5 how much you agree/disagree with statement. If some statements are
negative and others positive, scales of either one have to be reversed so that higher end-
scores indicate level of positive attitudes.
2. Semantic differential technique: employs bipolar scales, like good-bad; honest-dishonest, on
scales from -3 to +3 (5/7 point scales) - rating on a scale how much one word (good, clever,
stupid) describes an attitude.
Advantages of this method:
o Easy to develop: same word pairings can be used with different attitude objects
(good-bad); measure and compare cognitive and affective components of an attitude
o Universally applicable: used to measure different attitude objects, enabling
attitudinal comparison.
Disadvantages:
o Singular emotions: less applicable to measure explicit singular emotions, such as
anger, fear, associated with an attitude object (use Likert for this).
, 4
o Vagueness: the universal applicability is also a disadvantage: can mean different
things to people (the word pair could have a different meaning in the context of
another attitude object (Hot for food or hot for temperature).
Whenever an attitude is hard to measure since it is a taboo or politically incorrect we use indirect
ways to measure attitudes: implicit attitude measures
Evaluative priming: how an attitude object affects the categorisation of words as positive or
negative
o cockroach – dirty vs. cockroach-pretty; something incongruent with the attitude
objects takes longer to categorize.
o By looking at the response times, a particular attitude can thus be measured.
Implicit association test (IAT): how quickly are people able to categorise specific attitude
objects when categories are coupled with other words, positive or negative. Attitude objects
trigger automatic evaluative associations that can vary in valence and strength.
Indirect measurements are more sensitive for socially acceptable answers.
Theory of reasoned action: the purpose of the theory of reasoned action is to explain the
relationship between human attitudes and behaviors. The idea is that people are motivated to act
based on their beliefs about what the consequences for their behavior will be. This theory is used to
predict and understand why people behave a certain way by examining their motivation. For
example, if our attitude wants us to go out to ice cream with a friend, but we don't have any money,
our lack of money will keep our attitude from causing us to go out, changing our behavior.
Theory of planned behaviour: describe the reasoned attitudes. Attitudes result from subjective
considerations of costs and benefits. Attitudes can simply be measured by asking a persons’ opinion
(+/-) and attempt to determine the structure of attitudes: the specific benefits and drawbacks a
person associates with the object. Evaluations of consequences need to be measured. The
contribution of every possible consequence can be calculated
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