CRITICAL QUESTIONS –
INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS
RESEARCH
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Chapter 8: Introduction to design
the best way to acquire knowledge is to conduct true experiments
What is positivism?
(gold standard)
Interpretivism, also known as interpretivism involves researchers to
What is interpretivism? interpret elements of the study, thus interpretivism integrates human
interest into a study.
Internal validity is the approximate truth about interferences regarding
cause-effect or causal relationships. There are three criteria for
evidence
Explain internal validity
1. Temporal Precedence: The criteria that hold that the cause must
and the three criteria
occur before the effect.
2. Covariation of the cause and effect: Is there any effect at all?
3. No plausible alternative explanation (not causal).
What is the definition
when its always possible
that some other variable This is referred to as the third variable or missing values.
or factor is causing the
outcome
What is the easiest way
Implementation of a control group in true or quasi-experiment design.
to rule out alternative
Here, the control group is compared or contrasted with a group that
explanations in a
received the program or intervention.
research design?
1. Single-group threats: a study with only a single program or
treatment group.
What are the three
2. Multi-group threats: study with multiple groups (with comparison
categories for internal
group)
validity
3. Social threats to internal validity: threats that arise because
research is conducted in real-world with human context
What is the difference Single group threats occur in a study that uses only a single program
between single-group or treatment group and no comparison group, while a multi-group
and multi-group threats? uses a control group.
1). History threat: when some event other than your program occurs
at the same time and effects the outcome.
2) Maturation threat: A threat that occurs as a result of natural
maturation between pre- and post-test measurement
3) Testing threat: A threat that occurs when taking the pretest affects
how participants do on the posttest. This only applies to pre-post
Name the six threats to
research designs.
internal validity for
4) Instrumentation threat: A threat that occurs when the instruments
single-groups and multi-
used on the posttest and the pretest differ.
groups
5) Mortality threat: occur because a significant number of participants
drop out.
6) Regression threat: A regression threat, also known as a
"regression artefact" or "regression to the mean" is a statistical
phenomenon that occurs whenever you have a non-random sample
from a population and two measures that are imperfectly correlated.
,What does selection Selection bias occurs when any factor other than the program leads
bias mean and when to pretest differences between groups. This also means that the
does this apply? groups were not comparable before the study.
Research designs that have several of the key features of
What is a quasi- randomized experimental designs, such as pre-post measurement
experimental design? and treatment-control group comparison, but lack random
assignment groups.
1) Diffusion or imitation of treatment: threat that occurs because a
comparison group learns about the program (directly or indirectly)
from program group participants.
2) Compensatory rivalry: occurs when one group knows the program
another group is getting and, because of that, develops a competitive
Name the four social attitude towards the other group.
interaction threats 3) Resentful demoralization occurs when the comparison group
knows what the program group is getting resulting in discouragement
and anger and therefore resulting in dropouts.
4) Compensatory equalization of treatment: occurs when the control
group is given a program of treatment designed to make up for or '
compensate' for the treatment the program group gets.
1) By argument: argument that the threat in question is no
reasonable one.
What are methods to 2) By measurement or observation: measuring or demonstrating that
rule out threats to either it does not occur at all or it occurs minimally.
internal validity? 3) By analysis: proving by statistical evidence.
4) By preventive action: anticipate potential threats by preventive
action.
What elements should
Time, treatment or program, observations or measurement, and
research design
groups or individuals.
include?
What is the difference
A quasi-experiment uses either multiple groups or multiple waves of
between quasi-
measurement, while the nonexperiment does not have multiple
experiment and
groups or multiple waves of measurement.
nonexperiment?
Explain the notation of Time, treatment (X), Observation (O), Groups (R, N, C), Subscripts
research design (O1 and O2).
Chapter 9: Experimental design
is a systematic and scientific approach to research in which the
What is the researcher manipulates one or more variables, and controls and
experimental design? measures any change in other variables. It is considered the golden
standard because its the best way to prove internal validity
Why does experimental
design counter all the Because it is not a single group design (treatment group and control
non-social threats to group)
internal validity?
What does This means that you rely on the idea that the groups in the study are
probabilistically probably equivalent, but not equal. Groups therefore only differ due
equivalent mean? to chance.
What is a random The process of assigning your sample into two or more subgroups by
assignment? chance. This can be done by flipping counts or an automated system.
What is the difference
between a control
Program group, also known as the treatment group, gets the
group, comparison
treatment and is thereafter compared to the comparison group.
group and program
group?
What is the difference A random selection has to do with how you sample the people for
between random your study from the population. Random assignment is how you
selection and assign the sample that you draw to different groups or treatments in
assignment? your study. Ideally, you have both a random selection and random
, assignment.
Two-group posttest-only randomized experiment. Here you are more
What is the simplest interest in determining whether the two groups are different after the
experimental design and program. The tests used:
which test is used? 1. t-test (only two groups)
2. ANOVA (two or more groups).
What do the t-test and whether any difference you observed between the groups is likely to
ANOVA test? be due to chance or not
The signal is related to the key variable of interest. The noise, on the
What is the signal-to-
other hand, consists of all factors that influence how well you can
noise metaphor?
observe the signal
What are the two Signal enhancers or noise reducers and both improve the quality of
experimental designs? the research
What is the signal
Factorial designs. Here you focus on the setup of the program or
enhancing experimental
treatment.
designs?
Covariance designs: Reducing the noise in a study through inclusion
in one or more variables that account for some of the variabilities in
What are noise-reducing
the outcome measure or dependent variables
experiment designs?
Blocking designs: reducing the noise in a study through grouping
units into one or more classifications called blocks.
Null effect: no outcome
What does a null case, Main effect: an outcome that shows consistent differences between
main effect and all levels of a factor
interaction effect mean? An interaction effect: occurs when differences on one factor depend
on which level you are on another factor
Chapter 1: Foundation of Research methods
What does research The systematic investigation that is empirical in nature and is
mean? designed to contribute to public knowledge.
1. Systematic investigation
What are the three
2. Empirical endeavour
pillars of research?
3. Public effort.
The contribution of research to a broader effect by accumulating
What is the research
knowledge across multiple empirical systematic public research
enterprise?
projects.
Systematic effort to move research from initial discovery to practice
What does translational
and ultimately impacting our lives. This is also called the research-
research mean?
practice continuum
1) Basis research: to generate discoveries
2) Applied research: discoveries being tested in a real-world context
3) Implementation and dissemination research: how well a discovery
What are the five
can be distributed in a broach range of contexts
phases of the research-
4) Impact research: research thas assess the broader effect of
practice continuum
discovery on society
5) Policy research: when discoveries lead to the investigation of new
policies
Research literature has become very difficult to implement for
practitioners. As a result, the research enterprise has evolved a
What does the research
system for synthesising a large number of research studies in
syntheses mean?
different topical areas. This is called the research synthesis: a study
of multiple prior projects that address the same question.
1. Meta-analysis: using statistical methods to combine results in
What are the two types order to generate general conclusions. This is always quantitative
of research synthesis? 2. Systematic review: focus on a specific question or issue and may
or may not include a meta-analysis
A movement designed to encourage practitioners to employe
Explain the EBP,
practices that are based on research evidence as reflected in
Evidence-Based
research synthesis or practice guidelines. Relying on scientific
Practice
evidence
, When the author submits his article to a journal editor who conducts
What is a peer review?
reviewers
Theoretical: much of the research is concerned with developing,
What does theoretical exploring or testing the theories or ideas about how the world
and empirical mean? operates.
Empirical: based on direct observations and measurements of reality.
1. Descriptive studies. These are designed to document what is
going on or what exists (exit polls)
2. Relational studies: looks at the relationship between two or
What are the three types
multiple variables (gender and voting preference)
of studies?
3. Causal studies: determine whether or not one or more variables
causes or affects one or more outcome variables (whether political
advertisement changes voting preference)
What kind of timings in Cross-sectional: the study takes place at a single point in time
research exists? Longitudinal studies: study takes place at multiple time points.
What is the difference
Correlational two things perform in a synchronized manner, while
between correlational
causal are also synchronized but one change of variable causes the
and causal
other to change as well
relationships?
What is the third missing An unobserved variable that accounts for a correlation between two
variable? variables
A statement or prediction described in concrete terms what you
What is the hypothesis? expect to happen. An alternative hypothesis is a hypothesis you are
supporting. The null hypothesis is the remaining outcome
What is the difference
Independent variable: the variable you manipulate
between an independent
Dependent variable: the variable affected by the independent
and dependent
variable
variable?
Variables should be
Exhaustive: all possible answerable responses should be included
exhaustive and mutually
Mutually exclusive: respondent should not have two attributes
exclusive. Explain the
simultaneously
two terms:
What is the difference
Quantitative data are numerical formed, but qualitative is not
between qualitative and
numerical.
quantitative data?
1. Deductive: is a top-down approach, meaning you will work from
theory, to hypothesis, to observation and then to confirmation.
Describe both deductive 2. Inductive: a bottom-up approach beginning with a specific
and inductive research observation and measures and ends up a general conclusion or
approach theory.
Most research is a combination of both
The act of translating a construct into its manifestation. For example,
What does translating the idea of your treatment or program into the actual
operationalization program. A theory exists of both cause construct and effect construct
mean? and operationalization translates these into a program and
observations.
What does validity Validity is the closest approximation to the truth and it says
mean? something about the quality of the research and its conclusions.
1. construct validity: the degree to which conclusions you reach about
relationships in your data reasonable
2. Internal validity: the approximate truth about interference regarding
causal relationships
What are the four types
3. Construct validity: the degree to which inferences can legitimately
of validity?
be made from operationalization in your study to the theoretical
constructs on which those operationalizations are based
4. External validity: the degree to which the conclusions in your study
would hold for other persons, other places and other times
Chapter 2: Ethics
