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Summary Applying Core Debates in Political Science Literature Week 2
Applying Core Debates in Political Science Literature Week 2 (lecture 3)
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Week 2Lecture 3
Concepts and concept formation (Ch.10 Della & Porter) - Peter Mair
Most political and social science research, whether explicitly or implicitly, is comparative research. That
is, most research is concerned with findings which are directly compared across countries or cases, or
which can be tested against theories and inferences derived from such a comparison of countries and
cases. Objects have to be comparable to be compared.
Sartori’s theory of concept formation involves organizing concepts into three levels of abstraction—high,
medium, and low—based on their generality. As the range of cases expands, concepts must become more
abstract to avoid "concept stretching," while narrower comparisons allow for more concrete and specific
concepts.
The ‘what-is’ question - The first point that Sartori makes is very clear: when we begin our research, we
should always specify and define our concepts.
Sartori emphasizes the importance of defining concepts at the start of research. A concept is essentially
the "basic unit of thinking" that distinguishes A from non-A. Concepts can be empirical (e.g.,
"legislature") or theoretical (e.g., "structure"), and both are shaped by theory. Research should begin with
the "what-is" question, focusing on defining and understanding variables before moving to measurement
and comparison. Sartori argues that quantification or comparison should follow concept formation,
When starting research, it's tempting to skip defining your research object right away, but doing so can
lead to issues down the line. Without a clear definition, it becomes harder to explain your work to others
and to handle challenges that arise during the process. Sartori suggests the idea of negative identification,
which means defining something by what it is not. For instance, while it may be hard to specify the nature
of Saudi Arabia's regime, we can clearly say it is not a democracy.
When defining a concept proves challenging or when conflicting definitions arise, it can be helpful to ask,
"What is this an instance of?" This allows researchers to identify broader concepts under which the
disputed term might fit. When comparing multiple cases, it is particularly important to know whether the
object of study is the same or functionally equivalent across the different cases.
Concepts in research often emerge from various sources. They can stem from real-world phenomena that
need precise definition, or from frequent use in popular discourse. Sometimes, they arise from theoretical
debates. These different origins can result in multiple versions of the same concept, making it important
for researchers to distinguish between the definitions used by scholars and the interpretations of the
subjects being studied, especially in ethnographic and comparative research.
Classes and comparisons - The second point emphasized by Sartori, which follows from this, but which is
also more contested, is that ‘more and less’ comparisons should only be conducted within the same
classes or categories.
Sartori’s second point stresses that comparisons using “more or less” should be made only within the
same categories or classes. Concepts should be defined qualitatively before any quantification occurs. The
principle of per genus et differentiam means defining an object by both its broader category (genus) and
, its distinguishing features (differentiam). Classifications must be both exclusive and exhaustive, ensuring
each item fits into only one category and no item is left out. When combining classifications into
multi-dimensional categories, a typology is formed, moving towards explanation. Lijphart's typology of
democracies is an example, distinguishing between different forms of democracy based on elite behavior
and political culture.
Sartori argues that meaningful comparison should only occur within the same classes or categories,
defined by per genus et differentiam. Critics like DeFelice claim this limits comparisons across systems
like democracies and non-democracies. However, Sartori counters that higher levels of abstraction allow
comparisons across classes (e.g., "regime"). Jackman argues some concepts are inherently continuous
(e.g., "national wealth"), but Sartori responds that even continuous concepts need clear definitions before
measurement. He emphasizes that defining complex, multi-dimensional concepts is crucial for avoiding
confusion in research, like "cleavage". By accepting multidimensionality, complex concepts like
"cleavage," which involve social reality, identity, and organization, can be better understood and clarified.
The ladder of abstraction - Satori’s third points is that concepts are defined d by a large number of
properties, and which thereby have a more limited range of applications, are located towards the bottom
of the ladder.
Sartori’s third key point focuses on the ladder of abstraction, which organizes concepts by their level of
generality. Concepts with fewer properties (more abstract) are at the top, covering a wider range of cases,
while more detailed concepts (more concrete) are at the bottom, covering fewer cases. Sartori introduces
extension (range of cases) and intension (number of properties) to explain this trade-off. For example,
"political party" at the top includes minimal attributes, while specific subcategories like "mass party" and
the "business firm model" are more defined but apply to fewer cases.
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