Volledige Samenvatting Boek
Tentamen 1 ICW 2024
Samenvatting Hoofdstuk 2
Philosophy = the search for wisdom and knowledge
Two branches:
1. Metaphysics = examines the nature of reality
2. Epistemology = the study of knowledge
The mind–body problem:
addresses how psychological or mental properties are related to physical
properties
First question = Is the mind physical or something else? (metaphysical)
Second question = Does the mind control the body, or does the body control the
mind?
Monism = there is only one kind of state or substance in the universe (Aristotle,
384–322 BCE)
the difference between mind and body = the difference between form and
matter.
o Your mind can form thoughts you can make shapes with clay
using your hands
Dualism = both mental and physical substances are possible (Plato, 427–347
BCE)
(Knowledge of) the mind exists in a world that’s s immaterial,
nonextended, and eternal.
Your physical body exists in a world that’s material, extended, and
perishable
o A circle is always perfect in your mind, but always imperfect in real
life
A possible way out of the mind–body problem is to rely solely on behaviours as
indicators of mental states.
Behaviours such as talking, running, and laughing are external and more
easily measured than brain activity
philosophical behaviourism = mental states are dispositions or tendencies to
behave in certain ways under certain circumstances.
Happiness, for instance, can be thought of as the tendency to smile or
laugh.
Problem: no true prove that the two are causally related
,Monism:
Two different ways:
1. Idealism = The world you perceive and understand exists only “in your
head”
2. Physicalism (materialism) = believe that the universe is composed of a
single substance, which is physical and material
o Original view: Democritus (ca. 460–370 BCE), who believed that all
things were composed of atoms.
o Identity theory: the mind is the brain, mental states are physical
states of the brain. Problem: uses a lot of ‘made up’ terminology,
while scientific names are better
o Eliminativism: Reject terminology of identity theory + reject the
mental states. Believe that once you have a good biological
explanation for a psychological phenomenon, then you can
eliminate the psychological explanation and rely solely on the
biological one. Only physical brain states are acknowledged as
existing
folk psychology = Theories of mind that use subjective terms such as those
mentioned above and that use commonsense or intuitive reasoning
Evaluation of monism:
Pro’s:
- Simple
- there is abundant evidence in favour of physicalism
o most of the experimental results in this book support the notion of
the brain as being the core engine of mind
Con’s:
- idealism does not really qualify as a legitimate theory because it cannot be
proved true or false.
- Physicalism: critics acknowledge that the world is physical but indicate that
there is no physical explanation for many phenomena. E.g. how does 1
physical reaction cause different types of fear?
- Identity theory: multiple realization = any given mental state, such as
pain, can be different in different creatures.
Dualism
Three different ways:
1. Classical dualism = believe in a one-way causal link, with the
nonphysical mind controlling the physical body but not vice versa (René
Descartes, 1596–1650) - our thoughts control our actions
o Descartes believed pineal gland was in control, only brain element
that is on only one side of the brain
2. Substance dualism = mind and body are composed of completely
different substances, mental substances and physical substances.
o Minds can do X. No physical object can do X. Therefore, minds are
not physical objects.
o Problem: AI can also do some things only humans were supposed to
be capable of, like pattern recognition, language comprehension and
production, and even artistic creativity
o Arguments against: The Princess Elizabeth of Bohemia (1618–1680)
pointed out to Descartes that if mind and body are of two different
substances, then they should not be able to causally interact.
, 3. Property Dualism = the mind and the body can be of the same stuff but
have different properties. Believes that mental states are nonphysical
properties of the brain.
Arguments against dualism (way 1 &2) :
- biology can give us a very good account of mental states. If we can explain
these states completely in terms of neurons, action potentials, and
synapses, then there is no need to even provide a nonphysical account.
- substance dualism does not give us any kind of alternate explanation.
What are mental things made of?
Evaluation of dualism:
- Gilbert Ryle’s critique: the mind belongs in a conceptual category
different from that of the body
- Andy Clark’s critique: Dualism is uninformative, telling us what the mind
isn’t rather than what it is.
- Critique: Brain damage or drug use leads to specific mental disruptions,
implying a link between mind and brain.
- Critique: Evolutionary correlations between intelligence and the number
of neurons suggest that mental capacity depends on brain structure.
- Dualist responses:
o Some dualists argue that the mind has extraordinary abilities that
physical systems can’t replicate, like writing novels or negotiating
peace treaties.
o Advances in technology (e.g., AI that beats chess champions)
challenge this view by showing that these abilities can be
implemented computationally.
o Dualists argue that thoughts, beliefs, and desires are not equivalent
to physical brain states, based on introspection. Introspection is a
weak form of evidence, and objective proof is needed to
demonstrate that these experiential states are not physical.
Functionalism:
The most influential philosophical theory of mind
two ways of classifying things:
1. Physical kinds = things are identified by their material composition only
2. Functional kinds= things are distinguished by their actions or tendencies
mental states are not just physical states but also the functioning or operation of
those physical states. This also means that the mind can be physical or AI.
Implications:
- the same mental state could be realized in quite different ways in two
separate physical systems. Two brains do the same thing, but differently.
- The number of possible physical states the brain can assume, is probably
finite, while the number of mental states is infinite.
Evaluation:
- Critics have argued that, although it is possible that minds can exist in the
absence of brains (AI), this does not make it plausible. – no mind has been
made without brain
, - it cannot account for the felt or experienced character of mental states—a
phenomenon known as qualia = the subjective experience of what it is
like to feel hungry, to be angry, or to see the colour red. It would seem that
these kinds of experiences cannot be replicated as purely functional
processes.
The knowledge acquisition problem
How do we acquire knowledge?
nature–nurture debate = biology vs. experience
nativism = a significant body of knowledge is innate (Plato)
Rationalism = emphasize the existence of innate reasoning powers, while
acquiring ideas.
- Descartes would agree that we are not born with the idea of “table” but
can acquire it given our innate ability to perceive, think about, and interact
with objects.
Empiricism = sees knowledge as acquired through experience and observation
(nurture).
Associationists
The ideas of Locke:
- Simple ideas are derived through sensory input or simple processes of
reflection. They are received passively by the mind and cannot be reduced
to simpler ideas.
- Complex ideas are formed from the active mental combination of simple
ideas. They are created through reflection only and can be reduced to
parts, their component simple ideas.
All concepts of mind come from making simple associations
Evaluation of the Knowledge Acquisition Debate
- Debate nature/nurture is way too simplified - Although some traits may
indeed be mostly the product of nature or of nurture, there is a large
middle ground consisting of traits
- Prove innate:
o Reflexes: babies are born with reflexes like grasping and sucking
o Smell preference: babies only like good smelling things
The mystery of consciousness
we can think of it as the subjective quality of experience
Chalmers (1996) makes a distinction between phenomenal and psychological
concepts of mind.
- Phenomenal concept of mind = the idea of mind as a conscious
experience. Mental states in this view need to be explained in terms of how
they feel.
- Psychological concept of mind = sees mental states only in terms of
how they cause and explain behaviour.
