Summary APS-50803
Femke Hofmans - period 2
Module 1: Complexity of sustainable food production systems
Sustainability
Concept of sustainability since 18th century: forestry sciences realized that you should not cut
down more trees than will grow again to replace them.
-->The concept of sustainability yield was born, which implies “not exceeding the regenerative
capacity of the system”.
Nowadays, sustainability is seen as a concept including three pillars,
--> the pillar of people = social sustainability
planet = environmental sustainability
profit = economic sustainability
ex. organic pork = higher carbon footprint then conventional pork --> but climate change not only
relevant environmental issue (also pesticides)
planet: Being environmentally sustainable no longer only implies using natural resources at a rate
not exceeding their regenerative capacity,it nowadays also implies minimising emission of
pollutants to the air, water and soil.
profit: Economic sustainability implies balancing costs and revenues so that a system can sustain,
and includes issues of profitability, volatility and employability.
people: Finally, social sustainability ensures that production systems, such as a farm, are socially
accepted. In other words, a production system should be embedded in its social cultural context,
should be respectful towards humans and animals, and should contribute to equitable management
of resources. Social sustainability includes issues of food security and safety, human health risks,
labour circumstances, and animal welfare.
Crop and Livestock Production Systems
Agriculture has many different forms and it refers to arable farming, or crop production systems.
-With a crop production system we mean all processes that are involved in the cultivation of field
crops
-livestock production systems refer to all processes involved in animal production, including the
type of animals and their management. Livestock systems depend to a large extend on biomass
produced in the arable system and which is used as feed.
If we remove products from the farm, we also remove nutrients (= the agricultural products such
as maize and milk) -->That implies that these nutrients have to be replenished to prevent
degradation of the productive capacity of the farm.--> This can be done by applying fertilizer, be it
organic or artificial, to the crop and/or importing additional feed for the livestock.
None of the processes involved in agricultural production are one hundred percent efficient, so they
are all accompanied by emissions.
Crops and livestock partly compete for the same resources, such as land, labour and capital --
>This implies that the production of crops or livestock of mixed farms is often lower than that on
specialised farms-->However, the combined total production can be higher, depending on the
circumstances
A mixed farming system can also be organised as two (or even more) cooperating specialised
farms
Drivers towards specialisation are for instance technological developments that require a large
scale of production such as mechanisation, and increased knowledge demands
To conclude, in food production systems, crops and livestock interact through the flows of feed
and manure.
,Diversity of Food Production Systems
Food systems differ because of differences in their agro-ecological context or socio-economic
context, and differences in farm management.
-The agro-ecological context of a system, for example, is determined by the soil type and the local
climate
-whereas the socio-economic context , is determined by the market and the political situation.
example:
grass-based system New Zealand:
The main challenge of this milk production system in
New Zealand, therefore, is to improve grazing and herd
performance, in order to reduce eutrophication and
emission of greenhouse gases. (peak grass production
in spring so then calving when highest milk production
pastoralists system Tanzania: Pastoralists herd
livestock in order to find fresh pastures on
which to graze --> Livestock in these systems
not only produce food and hides, but they also
serve as capital asset or have a social status
function--> Pastoralists conserve rangeland
biodiversity, and protect ecosystem services--
>however when can't migrate = overgrazing=
biodiversity loss and degradation
Corn in USA--> food, feed and fuel --> fertilizers to increase productivity --> eutrophication/
depletion water bodies
mixed farm Zimbabwe --> manure not used to fertilize land = soil degradation
landless system in NL pigs-->A landless system typically has a high animal density, and replies on
the import of feed (In fact, this system is not landless, as we do need land to cultivate all
the imported feed)--> Especially if proper manure management is lacking, this system can
result in local eutrophication (soy deforistation in brazil...)-->also
this landless system often faces social challenges, like concerns about odour nuisance and animal
welfare.
climate controlled letuce farm Japan--> This farm combines biological knowledge about plant
growth with technology -->challenge energy -> but great potential to be sustainable
levels of food production: time and spatial scales
1. space: such as crop and livestock level, farm level, regional level, continental level, and even
global level
2. time: When we look at time, we move from short term to long term effects (hours, days,years..)
small to large scale in time and space
a. At crop-livestock level, the direct relation between crop and livestock is easy to see.
=cow eats grass --> defecates here
sustainability issues: greenhouse emissions, animal health/ welfare
b. farm level: mixed system with herd of animals and the surrounding fields of farm (feed/ food)
sust. issues: food security , economic profitability, soil fertility, local water/air pollution
(months/years)
c. regional level: group of farmers in specific region crops not originating from only plots at farm
sust. issues: water pollution of a river through area, agricultural employment, landscape
quality food security (decade)
d. continental level: livestock, feed for livestock and products transported to other continent (soy
Brazil deforestation to Europe feed)
sust. issues: surplus of minerals where animal production is and depletion of soils where
feed is produced (mineral cycle is not closed) --> competition on how to use land, energy
(Few decades)
e. global level: -->climate change
sust. issues: are affected by developments on a global scale and
effects are generally observed just after a century.
,-->also on plot or animal level long term effects can be observed
-->you need to be aware and make explicit in what level and in what period of time you are
interested.
Definition of environmental sustainability / what is it?
Impact food production on our earth is hot topic-->used in different ways
To be environmentally sustainable:
- ensure that our natural resources remain completely and indefinitely available
-not exceed the regenerative capacity of a system
= in other words, the in- and outflow of natural resources through the system should be
equal (fossil energy (coal, oil, gas) =not --> took millions of years )
- we should not exceed the ‘absorptive capacity’ of a system
-emissions to air water and soil
-main greenhouse gasses: carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide -> what is
acceptable
-ex. phosphorus: leaching in ground and surface water --> leaching into ground water
-hard to estimate the absorptive capacity --> system has to operate within regulation
standards--> regulation does not exist for gas emissions and food production--> so we can
only compare emissions of various food systems--> we are unsure which reduction level is
needed to be environmentally sustainable
So environmental sustainability implies:
“natural resources are used in economies or societies at a rate not exceeding their regenerative
and absorptive capacity.”
When exceeded => pressure on environment, problems such as:
-acidification
-eutrophication
-climate change
-smog
-eco -toxicity
-soil erosion
-deforestation
introduction to environmental issues
1. pollution problems: result of emission of pollutants to air, water and soil levels compounds/
chemicals to high --> human activities mostly --> effect environment
-local issues when pollutants cause problems where they released--> nutrients, pesticides,
heavy metals, pollutants to ground water serious if drinking water problems
-regional issues when transportation by air and water (rivers --> seas = algae)
via air: ammonia, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter and pesticides
regional problems:
1. acidification
2. eutrophication
-greenhouse gasses--> global
2. resource depletion
a. renewable: biogas, fish stocks, soils --> current over exploitation of soils, fish etc...
b. non renewable: phosphate--> no alternative, fossil fuels --> we will go to renewable
energy
3. issues related to land use
we need more and more land for food production --. is there enough for nature left?--> affect
biodiversity
Summary module 1
This module addresses basic concepts and terms of environmental sustainability of food production
systems.
What is eutrophication?
On planet earth, nutrients cycle, which means the movement and exchange of organic and
anorganic matter. This a balanced ecological process that currently is disturbed by human activity.
Eutrophication is a pollution problem resulting from a oversupply of nutrients into the environment
due to a not balanced fertilisation. These nutrients often end up via hydrological cycles in our
lakes, rivers and coasts. To secure water quality, nutrients should not leak to the environment.
, This should be done by efficient use of resources in which nutrient cycles from agriculture and
other human polluting activities should be closed.
Module 2: System thinking
Learning outcomes
Explain the basics of system analysis and key terms used such as system boundaries,
components, interactions, emergent properties, in- and outputs.
Analyse systems in terms of states, rates and driving variables (system dynamics).
Create relational diagrams.
Understand that system analysis tools are suitable for specific situations/problems, i.e. the
selected tool should fit with the problem.
Delineation of systems
Founder of systems thinking = Ludwig von Bertalanffy --> defining systems as:
'An entity which maintains its existence though the mutual interactions of its parts'
Example: System 'Dairy cow'
-->how does the entity dairy cow maintain her existence?
Five elements are essentially to recognize in a system
1. components --> e.g. organs of the dairy cow that collaborate
2. interaction between components--> these organs interact (e.g. gut brain interaction)
-any part system affect other part system --> so behaviour of system different from sum of
only its parts (synergy 1 + 1 =2 ) --> (emergent properties rups + blad = vlinder)
e.g. cow emergent property = milk is produced mainly from for human ingestible plants
3. the flow--> input: feed, O2
output: milk, manure, CO2
--> so system is not static but dynamic and change in time
4. the boundary: what is included in the system and excluded in the system (e.g. the hair)
5. the hierarchy: between systems
-components can be seen as subsystem
-system also part of larger system --> supra system (e.g. farm, interaction crops cows)
organ, animal, herd, farm, region = not strict more network
--> By distinguishing different levels, a complex system can be simplified in a logical and realistic
way, without losing sight of the relations and the context.
Relational Diagrams
=most basic visualisation to structure your mind = mapping relations between important elements
e.g. grass---goat
Relational diagrams
-organizational diagram = organogram (WUR)
-rich picture = used to express concerns or ideas of a group of stakeholder by showing relations
between different aspects of the problem
-flow diagrams= relational diagrams of process, arrows connecting symbols
symbols = system language --> different kinds
-Odum language (ecology) --> The circles represent inputs and outputs. The hexagons represent
animals, and the remaining symbol means storage.
-Forrester symbols (development population animals)
-->By quantifying Odum or Forrester diagrams you can simulate developments of a system in time.
This is what we call system dynamics.
Introduction to system analysis
In our daily life we all adopt some kind of systems thinking, because we all have mental models
about reality, such as the way our food is (or should be) produced --> To deepen this way of
thinking and make it scientifically explicit we need systems analysis.
