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KOM samenvating tussentoets4-21
Evidence based treatments, that are therapies that are supported by research. Empiricist do
not base conclusions on intuition, or on what other people say. Empiricism, also referred to
as empirical method or empirical research, involves using evidence from the senses (sight,
hearing, touch) or from instruments that assist the senses (such as thermometers, timers,
questionnaires) as the basis for conclusions.
Scientist test theories: the theory data cycle.
In the theory data cycle scientist collect data to test, change or update their theories. A
theory is a set of statements – as simple as possible- that describes general principles about
how variables rely to one another. A hypothesis is stated in terms of the study design. It’s the
specific outcome the researcher will observe in a study if the theory is accurate. Most
researchers test theories with a series of empirical studies, each designed to test an individual
hypothesis. Data are a set of observations, data that that match the theory hypothesis
strengthen the researcher’s confidence in the theory. Ideally hypotheses are preregistered.
That is, after the study is designed but before collecting any data, the researcher states
publicly what the study’s outcome is expected to be.
Scientist conduct multiple investigations, replicating the original study. A replication
(controleerbaar) means the study is conducted again to test whether the result is consistent.
A theory should lead to hypotheses that when tested, could fail to support the theory- in other
words, falsifiability (falsifieerbaar) is a characteristic of good theories. (een theorie moet
weerlegd kunnen worden aan de hand van verzamelde gegevens)
The empirical method can be used for both applied and basic research questions.
- Applied research (toegepaste onderzoeksvraag): is done with a practical problem in
mind an the researchers study might conduct their work in a local, real-world
context. Oftewel: je pakt de fundamentele kennis en past deze toe in een concrete
situatie.
- Basic research (fundamentele onderzoeksvraag): is een vraag waarbij de
onderzoeker vooral geïnteresseerd is in het onderzoeken van nieuwe kennis. Willen
bijdragen aan meer informatie over bepaald onderwerp. However, the knowledge
basic researchers generate may be applied to real-world issues later on.
When scientist want to tell the scientific world about the results of their research, they write a
paper and submit it to a scientific journal. In so doing they practice the communality norm.
the articles in a scientific journal are peer-reviewed. The journal editor sends the paper to
three or four experts on the subject. The experts tell the editor about the works virtues and
flaws, and the editor, considering these reviews, decides wether the paper deserves to be
published in the journal.
, 22-53
There are many reasons not to base beliefs solely on personal experience, but perhaps the
most important is that when we do so, we don’t have a comparison group. A comparison
group enables us to compare what would happen both with and without the thing we are
interested in. basing conclusions on personal experience is problematic because daily life
usually doesn’t include comparison experiences. In contrast, basing conclusions on systematic
data collection has the simple but tremendous advantage of providing a comparison group.
Another problem with basing conclusions on personal experience is that even if a change has
occurred, we often can’t be sure what caused it. In everyday life too much is going on at once.
So there are several possible explanations of an outcome. These alternative explanations are
called confounds. A confound occurs when you think one thing caused an outcome but in fact
other things changed, too, so you are confused about what the cause really was.
When your experience is an exception to what the research finds, you may be tempted to
conclude: the research must be wrong. However, the results of behavorial research are
probabilistic, which means that its findings do not explain all cases all of the time. Instead
the conclusions of research are meant to explain a certain proportion of the possible cases.
(uitspraken op basis van kans).
Biases
- A bias (een bewuste of onbewust vooringenomenheid) in thinking is the availability
heuristic, which states that things that pop up easily, leading us to overestimate how
often things happen. Recent, opvallend, emotioneel.
- When testing relationships, we often fail to look for absences: in contrast, it is easy to
notice what is present. This tendency, referred to as the present bias, reflects our
failure to consider appropriate comparison groups.
- The tendency to look only at information that agrees with what we want to believe is
called the confirmation bias.
We have what’s called a bias blind spot. The belief that we are unlikely to fall prey to the
other biases previously described.
183-185
A sample could be biased in at least two ways: researchers might study only those they can
contact conveniently or only those who volunteer to respond.
Many studies incorporate convenience sampling. Using a sample of people who are easy to
contact and readily available to participate.
Another way a sample might be biased is through self-selection. A term used when a sample
is known to contain only people who volunteer to participate.
191-192
If researchers want to study only certain kinds of people, they recruit only those particular
participants. When this is done in a nonrandom way, it is called purposive sampling
(doelgerichte steekproef). De onderzoeker gaat op zoek naar participanten die voldoen aan
hele specifieke voorwaarden.
One variation on purposive sampling that can help researchers find rare individuals is
snowball sampling. In which participants are asked to recommend a few acquaintances for
the study. Snowball samples are unrepresentative because people are recruited via social
networks, which are not random.
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