Week 36: Introduction, “From Mafia to Transnational Organized Crime”
The Oxford handbook of organized crime, Chapter 4: How to research
organized crime
Organized crime is a complex and hidden phenomenon, making it challenging to study.
Researchers use di erent approaches: ethnography, interviews with o enders, consumers, and
vic ms, and document-based research.
I. Conceptual Framework and Challenges
Organized crime is a socially constructed concept, varies in me and place. The De ni on of
organized crime re ects poli cal, legal, and social priori es. As a result researchers must navigate
issues of de ni on, generalizability, and validity when studying organized crime.
II. Ethnographic Research
Ethnography is a valuable method for understanding the internal dynamics of criminal groups,
par cularly hidden popula ons. Fieldwork, o en requiring the researcher to build trust with
par cipants and observe their behavior over extended periods.
Limita ons: validity, objec vity, and safety. Researchers o en contend with inaccurate
informa on from par cipants, who may glorify their ac ons or provide misleading accounts. The
ethnographer's personal social iden ty (race, gender, class) can also in uence how they are
perceived by criminal groups, a ec ng access and trust, and eldwork can be dangerous.
III. Interviewing O enders, Consumers, and Vic ms
Another important method is interviewing o enders, consumers, and vic ms. This technique can
reveal insights into the mo ves, prac ces, and experiences of individuals involved in organized
crime. Snowball sampling= a method where par cipants refer others to the researcher. This
technique is par cularly useful for reaching hidden or hard-to-access popula ons.
Interviews with vic ms: of organized crime, especially in cases of human tra cking, challenge
tradi onal views of vic mhood. For example, Siegel and Yeşilgöz (2003) found that Russian women
involved in pros tu on did not see themselves as vic ms, but as par cipants in a well-paid and
sa sfactory ac vity.
Limita ons: valuable qualita ve data, but limita ons in terms of representa veness, validity, and
generalizability. Snowball sampling restricts the scope of ndings to the researcher's network, and
there is always the possibility of misrepresenta on by par cipants.
IV. Document-Based Research and Compara ve Studies
In addi on to eldwork and interviews, researchers o en rely on documents and ins tu onal
data to study organized crime. Access to reliable data is limited because law enforcement agencies
and poli cal ins tu ons control much of the informa on on organized crime. This creates biases
and gaps in research, as these ins tu ons may shape the narra ve around organized crime.
Lack of compara ve studies (major gap) = Compara ve research across di erent countries and
me periods is essen al to understanding the global nature of organized crime and how it adapts
to various legal, social, and economic contexts.
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, V. Criminological Theories
• Di eren al Associa on Theory (Sutherland 1939) = This theory suggests that criminal
behavior is learned through interac on with others in a social context. Ethnographic studies
o en reveal how family, peer networks, and cultural values contribute to the normaliza on
of criminal behavior within certain groups.
• Strain Theory (Merton 1938) = Strain theory explains how societal pressures, such as
inequality and lack of opportunity, lead individuals to engage in criminal ac vi es as
alterna ve means of achieving success. Studies on the drug trade and smuggling o en
illustrate how economic and social marginaliza on push individuals into organized crime.
• Entrepreneurial Model of Organized Crime = This model views criminal groups as illicit
businesses that operate similarly to legal enterprises, with structured hierarchies, roles, and
pro t mo ves. Research on drug tra cking and counterfeit goods o en highlights how
organized crime adapts to market demands and operates e ciently within global supply
chains.
• Cultural Theories = These theories emphasize the role of cultural values in shaping criminal
behavior. Studies on ma a families and ethnic criminal networks show how organized crime
is o en embedded in cultural norms related to loyalty, honor, and family.
VI. Conclusion
The chapter encourages researchers to approach organized crime cri cally, avoiding simplis c
labels and recognizing the mul faceted nature. This approach helps understand criminal networks
and their role in contemporary society.
Theories of organized criminal behavior, Organized crime: (Lyman &
Potter, 2007) & The Oxford handbok of criminology, Chapter 2:
Sociological theories of crime (Rock, 2022)
Alien Conspiracy Theory = this theory a ributes the origins of organized crime in the United States
to outsiders, speci cally immigrants. It suggests that Sicilian immigrants, through the Ma a or "La
Cosa Nostra," brought a criminal culture that became the founda on for organized crime in the
U.S. Ethnicity, especially Italian, is a key factor in criminal organiza on. However, it is
oversimplifying the role of ethnicity and overlooking pre-exis ng organized crime structures in the
U.S. before the Italian immigra on.
Ra onal Choice Theory = individuals involved in organized crime make ra onal decisions based on
a cost-bene t analysis. People weigh the risk of detec on, punishment and injury against the
nancial and personal (respect, power, and acceptance) rewards of the criminal ac vity.
Deterrence Theory = the treat of punishment can reduce crime, divided in two types:
1. General deterrence: harsh punishments prevent people for commi ng crimes out of fear.
2. Special deterrence: severe penal es for speci c individuals will prevent them from
reo ending. However, the e ec veness of deterrence is debated, especially in organized
crime, where high rewards may outweigh the fear of punishment.
Psychological Theories = link between personality traits and criminal behavior, par cularly for
people with an social or psychopathic personali es. Such individuals lack remorse, engage in
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