logic lectures
week / propositional logic
VALID ARGUMENT
"
if the train arrives late and there are no taxis at the station ,
then jane is late for her
,
meeting " .
·
jane is not l a te for the
meeting .
·
the train does arrive l a te .
·
therefore ,
there a re taxis at the station .
DECLARATIVE SENTENCES
a declarative sentence (or proposition) is a statement that is either true or false.
I
57 3 true
513 false
grass is true
green
is and roses a re blue false
grass green
grass is green or roses are blue true
if X31 ,
then x*X true
ARGUMENT ABSTRACTION
"
if the train arrives late and there are no taxis if p and not a then r
.
-
, ,
station jane is late for her ."
at the ,
then
meeting .
·
jane is not l a te for the
meeting .
not r
·
the train does arrive l a te .
P
·
therefore ,
there a re taxis at the station . therefore , 9.
key of translation
·
P the train arrives l a te
a there are taxis at the station
r
Jane is l a te fo r her meeting
logical formalization :
(((p1 -9) -
r) - (ur -p)) -
d
Validity of the arguments is due to their logical form .
it does not depend on the ac tual con te n t of propositions p, 9 and r.
SYMBOLS
we wa n t to study logic without being distracted by the concrete contents of pro-
positions .
, ropositional variables
P p , a , ,
r . . .
connectives
1 and conjunction
v op disjunction
eithe r. . . exclusive
⑰
or . . . or
not negation
>
-
if
... then . . . implication
- if and only if bi-implication
SENTENCES AND FORMULAS
I
57 3 P
grass is
green P
is blue 1
grass green and roses a re p a
grass is green or roses are blue pra
if X31 ,
then x*X p-
-
a
↳ where p: X- 1 and 9 : x2 =
X
FORMULAS OF PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC
,
P 9 , ,
r . . .
a re propositional variables .
- is a unary connective ↑
1 V 0 -
connectives .
, , , , are binary
inductive definition :
.
1 base Step
every propositional variable is a formula .
.
2 construction steps
-
a
if is a for mula ,
then so is -
(4)
-
if $ and 4 a re formulas ,
then so a re (414) ,
(414) .
(404) ,
(4e4) ,
and
(P =t .
PARSING A FORMULA
( -
(p) -q) +
(p +
(av -
(r))
porcauer
·
↓
⑮ ↓
⑰
,OMITTING PARENTHESES
to omit parentheses from formulas . Without causing ambiguity , we use the priority
schema :
1v
>
- Ex
I
spra)
va -
P va
r +
pra
-
rv(p va)
-
( -
(p)) - -
p
(p1 -
(a)) =
r) (-
(r)1p))2q
↳ (p- -
q
+ r) -( r -
p) +
q
SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS
the syntax is how a word(or formula) is written .
↳ "cow"
the semantics is its meaning
↳ "a white mammal with black spots ,
that eats grass .
"
TRUTH VALUES
formulas of propositional logic are used to express declarative statements ,
which
are either true or false.
the truth value of a formula such as Put is determined by the truth
values of its components ,
& and ↑
.
NEGATION
[
$ true if I is false
·
negation -
"not $") is
false ifI is true
& -
O
1 0
S T
CONJUNCTION
[
/"D true I
if is true and I is true
a conjunction &1 ↑ and tr") is
false all other cases
a ↑ Out
11 I
1 O O
G 1 O
g G O
, DISJUNCTION -> inclusive "or"
[
/"D true I
if is true ↑ is true /or both
a disjunction & V to or tr") is
or
false all other cases
a ↑ Out
1 1 1
1 O 1
G 1 1
000
EXCLUSIVE OR
[
$ /"either true I
if is true ↑ is true (not
an exclusive or or r") is
or
both)
false all other cases
P ↓ out
1 1 O
1 O 1
G 1 1
0 O O
IMPLICATION
# - ↑ means : if I is true ,
then t is true .
↳ I
if true and I false then - false .
,
E
- false if I is true and ↑ is false
an implication ("if & then") is
true otherwise
P ↓ # - ↓
1 1 1
1 O O
G 1 1
0 O 1
B1- IMPLICATION
[
a bi-implication & 4 ("O if and iI
f ") is true if 4 and It have the
only
to
same truth va l u e
① ↑ est
false otherwise
1 1 1
10 O
G 1 S
g G 1