100% tevredenheidsgarantie Direct beschikbaar na betaling Zowel online als in PDF Je zit nergens aan vast
logo-home
Samenvatting - From language to linguistics €8,46   In winkelwagen

Samenvatting

Samenvatting - From language to linguistics

 1 keer bekeken  0 keer verkocht

A summary of the key material for the course "From Language to Linguistics". The summary is in English and focuses on the end-term content.

Voorbeeld 3 van de 17  pagina's

  • 29 oktober 2024
  • 17
  • 2024/2025
  • Samenvatting
Alle documenten voor dit vak (1)
avatar-seller
merelzijm
‭Handout 7‬
‭ -bar theory is a framework in syntax that proposes a universal structure for all syntactic‬
X
‭categories (like nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.). It breaks down phrases into hierarchical‬
‭levels, with each phrase consisting of three main parts:‬
‭1)‬ ‭Head =‬‭The main category of the phrase, such as a‬‭verb for a verb phrase.‬
‭2)‬ ‭Specifier =‬‭A dependent part of the phrase that adds‬‭specific details.‬
‭3)‬ ‭Complement =‬‭Additional information that completes‬‭the phrase.‬

‭ very phrase in a sentence, regardless of its type, follows the same basic structural template‬
E
‭in X-bar theory. This template can be applied to noun phrases (NP), verb phrases (VP),‬
‭adjective phrases (AP), prepositional phrases (PP), and more.‬
‭The phrase is called XP, where "X" stands for the head of the phrase (e.g., N for noun, V for‬
‭verb, A for adjective). The rules are:‬
‭●‬ ‭𝑋𝑃‬‭‬‭→‬‭‭𝑆 ‬ 𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟‬‭‬‭𝑋‭’‬‭:‬ This rule indicates that an XP‬‭(Phrase) consists of two main‬
‭components‬
‭○‬ ‭Specifier:‬‭The optional part of the phrase that modifies‬‭or adds information to‬
‭the phrase.‬
‭○‬ ‭X' (X-bar):‬‭An intermediate projection that connects‬‭the specifier to‬
‭the rest of the phrase. It’s the middle layer in the hierarchical‬
‭structure.‬
‭●‬ ‭𝑋‬‭’‬‭‬‭→‭‬‬‭𝑋‭‬‬‭𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡‬‭: This rule states that the X'‬‭(X-bar) is composed of‬
‭○‬ ‭X (Head):‬‭The core part of the phrase, such as a noun‬‭(N), verb (V), or‬
‭adjective (A).‬
‭○‬ ‭Complement:‬‭The part of the phrase that completes‬‭the meaning of the head.‬

I‭n syntax, complements and adjuncts are two different types of elements in a sentence that‬
‭modify or add information to the main verb or head of a phrase, but they serve different‬
‭functions and follow different rules.‬

‭ omplements =‬‭Essential parts of a phrase that typically‬‭receive a semantic role (or theta‬
C
‭role) from the main verb. Complements are often necessary (obligatory) to complete the‬
‭meaning of the verb or head of a phrase. Without a complement, the sentence or phrase‬
‭may feel incomplete or ungrammatical.‬
‭For example: "She broke a door." Here, "a door" is the complement of "broke,"‬
‭because it completes the meaning of the action. Without it, "She broke" is incomplete‬
‭in English because "broke" requires an object.‬

‭ heta roles =‬‭The semantic relationships that elements‬‭in a sentence have with the verb,‬
T
‭like "agent" (the doer), "theme" (the thing affected), etc.‬

‭ djuncts =‬‭Optional modifiers that add extra information‬‭but are not‬
A
‭essential to the core meaning of the sentence. They do not carry a‬
‭theta role. Adjuncts can usually be left out without affecting the‬
‭grammaticality of the sentence. Adjuncts provide information extra information about time,‬
‭place, and manner of the action/event‬
‭"She broke the door carefully." Here, "carefully" is an adjunct because it adds detail‬
‭about how she broke the door but is not essential to the meaning.‬

,‭There are some exceptions:‬
‭●‬ ‭Optional arguments =‬‭Sometimes, a verb can be used‬‭with or without a‬
‭complement, depending on context.‬
‭○‬ ‭For example: "He is eating" vs. "He is eating an apple."‬
‭"An apple" is an optional complement because the sentence remains‬
‭grammatical without it, even though it clarifies what he is eating.‬
‭●‬ ‭Obligatory adjuncts =‬‭In rare cases, adjuncts are‬‭required to complete the‬
‭sentence.‬
‭○‬ ‭For example: "‬‭He behaves stupidly.‬‭" vs. "‬‭He behaves‬‭"‬
‭In English, the verb "behaves" often feels incomplete without an adjunct like‬
‭"stupidly" or "well," since it normally requires additional information to specify‬
‭how he behaves.‬

‭ P Ellipsis =‬‭A phenomenon in syntax where a verb‬‭phrase (VP) is omitted because it can‬
V
‭be inferred from context. This allows for more concise sentences without repeating‬
‭information unnecessarily.‬
‭For example: “‬‭Mary [VP broke the window] in the evening and Joost [did it] in the‬
‭afternoon.‬‭" In this case, "did it" substitutes for the previously mentioned action‬
‭(breaking the window), maintaining grammaticality.‬
‭Another example: "‬‭Mary [VP broke the window] in the‬‭evening and Joost did it the‬
‭glass.‬‭" This sentence is ungrammatical because "the‬‭glass" fails to substitute for the‬
‭VP. The ellipsis cannot simply replace the direct object or a part of the VP that is not‬
‭fully encapsulated in the initial clause.‬

‭ P-ellipsis test =‬‭Involves omitting part of a verb‬‭phrase in the second clause, usually by‬
V
‭using expressions like‬‭"‭d ‬ id‬‭that‬‭too"‬‭or‬‭"‬‭does‬‭that‬‭also."‬‭If the omitted information is a‬
‭complement, it’s essential to the meaning of the sentence and must be specified. If it’s an‬
‭adjunct, it is optional and provides extra information that isn’t necessary to complete the‬
‭verb’s meaning.‬

‭Complement Example: "She‬‭broke‬‭the window‬‭with the‬‭hammer‬‭, and he [‬‭did‬‭that‬‭] [‬‭with a‬
‭stone‬‭]."‬
‭●‬ ‭Here, "the window" is a complement to "broke" because it is required to complete the‬
‭meaning of the verb. The VP-ellipsis test shows that "the window" cannot be omitted‬
‭and that "with a hammer" can be replaced with "with a stone."‬
‭●‬ ‭This maintains the meaning of both sentences because the main action (breaking a‬
‭window) requires an object, while the manner (using a hammer or stone) is‬
‭additional.‬

‭Adjunct Example: "She‬‭broke‬‭the window‬‭with the hammer‬‭,‬‭and he [‬‭did‬‭that‬‭] [‬‭the vase‬‭]."‬
‭●‬ ‭This version is ungrammatical because it tries to replace the adjunct "with the‬
‭hammer" with "the vase," which doesn’t work as a substitute in the same position.‬
‭●‬ ‭The adjunct here (the tool used) doesn’t play a fundamental role in completing the‬
‭verb’s meaning, so changing it while keeping the VP ellipsis (omitting part of the‬
‭phrase) fails in this way.‬

, ‭ hen we adjunction takes place, a "copy" or "clone" of the root node (highest node in the‬
W
‭structure, such as VP or NP) is created, which allows for additional elements to attach to it.‬
‭These added elements do not change the fundamental sentence structure but instead‬
‭expand it, providing optional, descriptive details about the action or event. It does not alter‬
‭the phrase's core structure (or syntax tree’s core nodes) needed for the sentence's basic‬
‭meaning. Instead, it simply adds space for extra, non-essential information. The elements‬
‭added via adjunction do not receive thematic roles (they are not central to the meaning of‬
‭the predicate/verb), meaning they are not required by the verb to complete the sentence.‬
‭For instance, the verb "make" requires an object (like "a cake") to make sense, but‬
‭adjuncts like "in the kitchen" or "happily" are not required, even though they add‬
‭more details about the action.‬

“‭ She is making a cake."‬
‭Here, "a cake" is a complement (required by the verb‬
‭"making") and gives the verb its complete meaning. Without‬
‭it, the sentence would be incomplete ("She is making" is‬
‭ungrammatical).‬

‭“She is making a cake (in the kitchen) (with the food mixer)‬
‭(happily)."‬
‭These added elements "(in the kitchen)", "(with the food‬
‭mixer)", are adjuncts. They provide extra information but are‬
‭not required for the sentence to be grammatical. They do not‬
‭change the basic syntactic structure, just add space for‬
‭additional, non-obligatory information.‬

‭ other node =‬‭A node that directly dominates another‬‭node or set of‬
M
‭nodes. A mother node can be thought of as a “parent” node, with the‬
‭nodes directly beneath it being its daughters.‬
‭Sisters‬‭=‬‭Nodes that share the same mother are considered‬‭sisters. Sisters do not dominate‬
‭each other; rather, they exist at the same level in the tree.‬
‭Sisterhood =‬‭If two nodes are immediately dominated‬‭by the samen node, they are sisters.‬

‭𝑊ℎ𝑎‬‭𝑡‭𝑡‬ ‬‭‬‭𝑑𝑜‬‭‬‭𝑦𝑜‬‭𝑢‬‭𝑡‬‭‬‭‬‭𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑡‬‭[‬ ‭𝑡𝑜‬‭‬‭𝑒𝑎‬‭𝑡‭𝑡‬ ‬]
‭𝑗‬ ‭𝑖‬ ‭𝑗‬

"‭ What"‬‭starts in its base position as the object of‬‭"eat"‬‭, but due to wh-movement, it moves to‬
‭the front of the sentence. Traces (tj and ti) mark the original positions of moved elements.‬

‭ -command =‬‭Iff Node A and Node B are sisters (both‬‭dominated by a common parent‬
C
‭node), Node A c-commands Node B and any nodes that fall below B in the tree. This‬
‭relationship is fundamental in syntactic theory for describing certain dependencies and‬
‭hierarchical structures in language.‬

‭ -command (Reinhart 1976):‬‭Just as Fibonacci numbers‬‭appear in various natural patterns,‬
C
‭c-command consistently appears in syntactic structures across languages, underpinning‬
‭phenomena such as binding and scope.‬

Voordelen van het kopen van samenvattingen bij Stuvia op een rij:

Verzekerd van kwaliteit door reviews

Verzekerd van kwaliteit door reviews

Stuvia-klanten hebben meer dan 700.000 samenvattingen beoordeeld. Zo weet je zeker dat je de beste documenten koopt!

Snel en makkelijk kopen

Snel en makkelijk kopen

Je betaalt supersnel en eenmalig met iDeal, creditcard of Stuvia-tegoed voor de samenvatting. Zonder lidmaatschap.

Focus op de essentie

Focus op de essentie

Samenvattingen worden geschreven voor en door anderen. Daarom zijn de samenvattingen altijd betrouwbaar en actueel. Zo kom je snel tot de kern!

Veelgestelde vragen

Wat krijg ik als ik dit document koop?

Je krijgt een PDF, die direct beschikbaar is na je aankoop. Het gekochte document is altijd, overal en oneindig toegankelijk via je profiel.

Tevredenheidsgarantie: hoe werkt dat?

Onze tevredenheidsgarantie zorgt ervoor dat je altijd een studiedocument vindt dat goed bij je past. Je vult een formulier in en onze klantenservice regelt de rest.

Van wie koop ik deze samenvatting?

Stuvia is een marktplaats, je koop dit document dus niet van ons, maar van verkoper merelzijm. Stuvia faciliteert de betaling aan de verkoper.

Zit ik meteen vast aan een abonnement?

Nee, je koopt alleen deze samenvatting voor €8,46. Je zit daarna nergens aan vast.

Is Stuvia te vertrouwen?

4,6 sterren op Google & Trustpilot (+1000 reviews)

Afgelopen 30 dagen zijn er 85443 samenvattingen verkocht

Opgericht in 2010, al 14 jaar dé plek om samenvattingen te kopen

Start met verkopen
€8,46
  • (0)
  Kopen