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Dit document is een samenvatting van alle artikelen van Talent Development and Creativity.
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Voorbeeld 4 van de 39 pagina's
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Week 1The Role of Deliberate Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance
Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993)
Early accounts attribute individuals outstanding performances to divine intervention.
Contemporary accounts assert that the characteristics responsible for exceptional performance
are innate and are genetically transmitted. Superior performance is found to be acquired
through experience and the effect of practice on performance is larger than earlier believed
possible.
Francis Galton investigated the possibility that excellence in diverse fields and domains has a
common set of causes. He argued that eminence was a virtually inevitable consequence of
inherited ‘natural ability’. Galton acknowledged the interplay between genetic and
environmental factors defining natural ability as innate capacity, zeal, and the power for
strenuous work, with the latter two likely having a genetic component.
The belief that genetic factors rigidly determine maximal performance suggests stability over
time. Anatomical features, like height and muscle size, influence athletic prowess, but recent
research emphasizes the role of acquired characteristics in expert performance. The domain-
specific nature of expertise highlights the importance of acquired knowledge and skill. While
early exceptional performance may hint at innate talent, environmental conditions and
parental support are likely pivotal in initiating training.
Adults perform at a level far form their maximal level even for tasks they frequently carry out.
In virtually all domains, insights and knowledge are steadily accumulating and the criteria for
eminent as well as expert performance undergo continuous change. To make an eminent
achievement one must first achieve the level of an expert and then in addition surpass the
achievement of already recognized eminent people and make innovative contributions to the
domain.. In sum, the belief that a sufficient amount of experience or practice leads to maximal
performance appears incorrect.
There is a relatively widespread conception that if individuals are innately talented, they can
easily and rapidly achieve an exceptional level of performance once they have acquired basic
skills and knowledge. However, Simon and Chase, propose a ’10-year rule’, which is
supported by data from a wide range of domains (e.g. music, mathematics, tennis). This
evidence is consistent with Galton’s claim that motivation and perseverance are necessary for
attainment of eminent performance. The level of performance can be increased even by highly
experience individuals as a result of deliberate efforts to improve.
A number of conditions for optimal learning and improvement of performance have been
uncovered. Many concerns the subjects’ motivation to attend to the task and exert effort to
improve their performance. The design of the task should take into account the preexisting
knowledge of the learners so that the task can ben correctly understood after a brief period of
instruction. Also, the subjects should receive immediate informative feedback and knowledge
of results of their performance. They should repeatedly perform the same or similar tasks.
When these conditions are met, practice improves accuracy and speed of performance on
cognitive, perceptual and motor tasks. Developing expert performance can be done by
practice activities that maximize improvement. These activities are called deliberate practice,
and are specifically designed to improve the current level of performance.
,Three general types of activities are considered: work, play and deliberate practice. The
external rewards of work activities include social recognition and money. In play and
deliberate practice, external rewards are almost completely lacking. The goals of play is the
activity itself, and the inherent enjoyment of it is evident. Deliberate practice is, however, a
highly structured activity and the explicit goal of which is to improve performance.
The monotonic benefits assumption is the basic assumption that the amount of time an
individual is engaged in deliberate practice activities is monotonically related to that
individuals acquired performance. Deliberate practice is not simple, firstly, it required
available time and energy (and money). Secondly, it is not inherently motivating. Finally, it is
effortful and an only be sustained for a limited time each day.
According to Bloom, there are three phases of development toward adult expertise. The first
phase starts with an individual’s introduction to activities in the domain and ends with the
start of instruction and deliberate practice. The second phase consists of an extended period of
preparation and ends with the individual’s commitment to pursue activities in the domain on a
full-time basis. The third phase consists of full-time commitment to improving performance
and ends when the individual either can make a living as a professional performer in the
domain or terminates full-time engagement in the activity. This framework needs to be
extended with a fourth phase to accommodate eminent performance. During this fourth phase
the individuals go beyond the knowledge of their teachers to make a unique innovative
contribution to their domain.
Multiple constraints are specified that are inherent in the attainment of exceptional
performance. Resource constraints are for example the parents encouraging the children’s
activity and monitoring performance, make possible the discovery of early signs of talent and
promise. Effort constraints, individuals seeking to maximize their performance within some
time period should maximize the amount of deliberate practice they engage in during that
period. An individual should be fully attentive to his playing so that he or she will notice areas
of potential improvement and avoid errors. Motivational constraints. Deliberate practice is not
inherently enjoyable, thus individuals need to be engaging in the activity and motivated to
improve performance before they begin deliberate practice. The study suggests that
exhaustion and resource limitations, not time constraints, determine the upper limit of
practice.
Violinists, especially the top performers, identified practicing alone as the most relevant
activity for improving their performance. The best young violinists practiced three times
longer than music teachers, with retrospective estimates of their accumulated practice by age
18 comparable to professional middle-aged violinists in top orchestras.
Expert pianists, compared to amateurs, exhibited significant differences in the amount and
trajectory of deliberate practice throughout their development. Experts started earlier,
consistently increased their practice, and surpassed amateurs in weekly practice times by over
tenfold. Performance levels were associated with higher levels of deliberate practice.
Expert performance reflects the mastery of the available knowledge or current performance
standards and relates to skills that master teachers and coaches know how to train. Eminent
performance requires that the individual go beyond the available knowledge in the domain to
produce a unique contribution to the domain, hance it is, by definition, not directly
,instructible.
Conclusion
The researchers reject the idea of fixed innate talent, asserting that expert performance results
from lifelong deliberate effort, not immutable characteristics. While acknowledging
differences between experts and normal performers, they argue these differences arise from
continuous, focused practice rather than inherent limits. Constraints on achieving expert
performance include access to instruction, sustained practice, parental support, and
motivation, differentiating experts from the general population facing lower demands on
practice.
Deliberate Practice and Performance in Music, Games, Sports, Education, and Professions
Brooke N. Macnamara, David Z. Hambrick and Frederick L. Oswald (2014)
Whereas Galton claims that talent is based in nature and the innate talent limits the ultimate
level of performance one can achieve, Watson and others believed more in the concept of
nurture. They believed that experts are made though practice.
Although deliberate practice is important, growing evidence indicates that it is not as
important as Ericsson et al. have argued. There has been found a large amount of variability in
the total amount of deliberate practice between different players. This current study do indeed
not support these strong claims. Regardless of the domain, a large amount of variance in
performance is not explained by the deliberate practice and is potentially explainable by other
factors. However, it is clear that the amount of explained variance differs per domain (most
strong for games, music).
The effect of deliberate practice on performance tends to be larger for activities that are highly
predictable than for activities that are less predictable. But, overall, the percentage of variance
in performance explained by deliberate practice is smaller than the percentage of variance not
explained by deliberate practice. Other variables explaining the variance may be age, general
intelligence and more specific abilities such as working memory capacity.
Creative performance, expertise acquisition, individual differences, and developmental
antecedents
Simonton (2014)
A general question is, ‘what is creative expertise?’ Domain-specific expertise is not precisely
defined. Two points help to illustrate this. First, sometimes the expertise does not exist until it
is first created. For example Galileo’s creation of telescopic astronomy, had no basis in any
existing scientific expertise at that time. Many experts of his day first rejected his claims as
optical illusions. Secondly, even when a domain-specific expertise is pretty much defined in
advance, that expertise can be conceived multiple ways, making it difficult to determine
precisely what optimal subset of that generalized expertise is most relevant to a particular
performance criterion. For example the most successful opera composers do create non-
operatic compositions and represent a mix of genres. In a sense, the composers avoid
“overtraining” by engaging in cross-training. Similar to this, the most creative scientists tend
to have creative hobbies and interests well outside of a scientific domain. Thus, the most
creative acquire a breath of interest that enables them to “think outside the box” defined by
any existing domain-specific expertise.
, The second question: ‘What is creative performance?’ A creative idea must satisfy three
quantitative criteria. First, the idea must be highly original in the sense of a low probability of
initial generation. Repeating an idea violates this criterion. Second, the idea must be useful in
the broad sense of satisfying some utility standards, whether scientific of esthetic. In
creativity, the bar is always being raised by previous acts of creativity. This makes it each
time more difficult for an idea to be useful. Third, the idea must be surprising. Ideas that
could have been generated by anyone with the same domain-specific knowledge and skill are
considered obvious and hence unpatentable. The discovery of Galileo was certainly surprising
to everybody, expert and novice alike.
About the 10-year rule; it is not a rule and 10 is not more than a convenient round number.
One of the most fundamental principles in psychology is that on any attribute people vary
substantially around some central tendency. Mostly, this is a highly skewed distribution with a
long upper tail. Even creative experts vary greatly in the speed of expertise acquisition and in
the magnitude of their performance based on that acquired expertise.
People not only differ in speed or magnitude, but also in other individual-difference variables.
These fall into two broad categories; cognitive abilities and dispositional traits. A central
question is how these individual differences contribute to both acquisition and performance,
the expertise-acquisition position.
The different antecedents proposed for expertise acquisition
naturally fall into two different categories: genetic and
environmental. The first option, genetic antecedents has been
proposed by Galton. Later on, his strong position in the
nature-nurture debate slightly showed an interest in the
environmental part of the debate. Specifically, in the
influence of birth-order.
This current model has been proposed CF (creative
performance), DP (deliberate practice), CA (cognitive
abilities), DT (dispositional traits), GF (genetic factors) &
EF (environmental factors). Because there are no arrows
going directly form GF to DP or CP, talent is not
hypothesized to determine deliberate practice or creative
performance directly. So, the influence must be indirect.
A dynamic network model to explain the development of excellent human performance
Den Hartigh, Van Dijk, Steenbeek and Van Geert (2016)
The explanation for excellent performance does not reside in specific underlying components,
but rather in the ongoing interactions among the components. Excellence development is thus
not component driven, but emerges out of idiosyncratic dynamic networks of components.
Several researchers hold the view that excellent performance primarily develops out of a
specific property in the person, in the sense of some innate talent or a gift, mostly identifies as
domain-specific genetic endowment. Which entails that individuals who have a domain-
specific gift, have the potential to reach excellent performance. Another view is that the
environment play a major role. A third view is that effort is required to become an excellent
performer. The general consensus in reached to think that excellence is multidimensional.
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