History of the Modern World since 1750
Lecture 1 – Introduction
History and Political Science
History of the Modern World is the analysis of societies and human relationships and how these interacted,
changed, and became ‘modern’ since the eighteenth century. History is seen as the “continuation of politics with
other means”. This encompasses various aspects:
- Societal Structures: These determine social groups, their relationships, and enduring patterns of behavior.
Understanding societal structures involves examining class hierarchies, social norms, and institutions
that shape community interactions and social roles
- Economic Structures: These define work, labor relationships, and survival strategies. Analysis includes
the evolution of economic systems, the role of industrialization, and the impact of capitalism and labor
movements on society
- Political Structures: Th ese define power relationships between societal groups, within governmental
bodies, and between governmental bodies and citizens. It involves studying the development of state
systems, political ideologies, governance models, and the influence of political power on social dynamics
- Cultural Repertoires: Norms, mental practices, sciences, art, etc., that are characteristic of societies in
certain historical periods. This includes the study of cultural expressions, intellectual movements, and
the role of culture in shaping societal values and behaviors.
The Enlightenment as a Historical Concept
A conceptualization of Enlightenment:
- Reality is knowable and determined by natural forces rather than supernatural forces (e.g., God).
Enlightenment thinkers emphasized the importance of reason and evidence over religious dogma
- The rational, experimental, and empirical scientific method can answer all questions concerning nature
and society. This approach underpinned many scientific and philosophical advancements during the
period
- The Age of Reason marked a period where logic and evidence became the primary tools for understanding
and controlling nature and society
- There was a belief that humanity and human society could be raised and educated to attain a higher
degree of perfection (‘faith in progress’), highlighting an optimistic view of human potential and societal
improvement
- Nature and society around us can be controlled and engineered, this by the application of universal
knowledge
- The Enlightenment fostered “optimistic beliefs in the historical advance of reason, science, education,
social reform, tolerance, and enlightened government”, reflecting a fundamental shift towards modernity
(“belief in progress”)
,The Enlightenment as an Intellectual and Societal Phenomenon
Immanuel Kant (1725-1804)
- He advocated for letting go of everything that is seen as knowledge but not obtained objectively (“Dare
to think for yourself”)
Cartesian dualism is the systemic doubt of observations and ideas
- It is the division between subjective and objective knowledge of the truth
o Subjective: norms or ideas
o Objective: facts
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
- Advocated systematic doubt of observation and ideas (Cartesian dualism), stressing the need for
skepticism
- Emphasized logical reasoning and mathematics as foundational to knowledge
- Promoted deduction and the scientific method, suggesting that science could lead to a better life
o Deduction: from general to particular; top-down logic
Francis Bacon (1562-1626)
- Sought to understand and control nature through systematic observation, experimentation, and reasoning
- His advocacy for empiricism stated that reliable knowledge must be based on observation,
experimentation, and reasoning
- Promoted induction as a method of scientific inquiry
o Induction: from particular to general; bottom-up logic
- Authored “The New Atlantis” (1627), envisioning a utopian society founded on scientific principles
Denis Diderot (with D’Alembert)
- Created the “Encyclopedie” (1751-1772), a comprehensive work aiming to gather and disseminate
knowledge
o First encyclopedia in Europe that was available for the people
Deism
- Philosophical belief that puts meaning to religion in an enlightened and rationalistic way
- It dismisses organized religion, rather advocating for tolerance towards different and individual ways of
thinking about God
o Churches and pastors are seen as ignorant and do not fit in modern society
- Conceptualized God as ‘The Watchmaker’ or ‘almighty intelligence’ who does not interfere with the
universe
o It is responsible for the creation of it, but does not interfere with the world as it is created
,Voltaire (1694-1778)
- Criticized organized religion, famously stating, “Christianity is the most ridiculous, the most absurd, and
bloody religion that has ever infected the world”
The Enlightenment as a Social and Cultural Phenomenon
- Culture of Salons were intellectual gatherings where ideas were exchanged and discussed
o ‘Republic of Letters’: A transnational intellectual community sharing ideas through correspondence
- Education was emphasized as a means to foster enlightenment values
- Women played a big role in this culture as gatekeepers or hostesses of the social gatherings
o Prominent women like Mme. Geoffrin and Mme. Julie de Lespinasse
Through social gatherings, independent thinking and reasoning abut society and government began and a public
opinion was created
- Sometimes they would be censored, thus challenging the dissemination of Enlightenment ideas by
authoritarian regimes
- However, this was not really feasible because the rules of censorship were not the same in all countries
and republic
o Therefore, there would always be a place where the newspapers could be created and published and
transported to other places afterwards
Natural Law and Enlightenment Political Ideas
Natural law is a philosophy that states that certain rights are inherent just by the fact that you are human; these
laws should always be honored as every human deserves them
- Societies are to be understood through analyzing them in a rational, universal, and objective manner
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
- Proposed the state of nature and natural law concepts
- Without any government or regulations there is the state of nature and natural law
o War of all against all
- He advocated for the monopoly on power and absolutism to ensure societal order
o Everybody should give up their monopoly of power to one person
John Locke (1632-1704)
- He believed that people could collaborate
- Emphasized personal liberties, property rights, and labor
- Advocated for the consent of the governed, parliamentary representation, and limited government
o The government should protect the contracts that people made
- Promoted constitutionalism as a framework for governance
, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
- Critiqued French hierarchical society through “The Social Contract”
o He saw economic inequality as the foundation for all inequality
- Introduced the concept of the General Will as the collective interest of the people
Social Contract Theory
- Proposed that government is based on a rational and conscious agreement, either between the governed
and government (Hobbes and Locke) or among people themselves (Rousseau)
o He criticized the idea that monarchs were divinely empowered
Rousseau rejected political representation, advocating instead for popular sovereignty, where each individual
identifies with the 'general will.
Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)
- Authored “L’Esprit des Lois” (1748), advocating for the division of governmental powers (Trias Politica)
to protect liberty from absolute rulers
The Trias Politica is a way of protecting liberties in society by dividing governmental functions and powers into
3 separate parts that have their owns tasks and check each other:
1. Legislature: creates the laws for a political entity
2. Executive: executes and enforces the created laws
3. Judiciary: interprets and applies the law in the name of the state
Marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794)
- An ‘intellectual in politics’ advocating for the rights of women and the abolition of slavery
- Asserted natural equality, arguing that differences between men and women are socially constructed
- Critiqued colonialism from an Enlightenment perspective, using natural rights and utilitarian arguments
o Utilitarianism: “the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of people”
Enlightened Despotism
Enlightened despotism was a secular perspective by hereditary rulers
- It focused on curtailing medieval forces and customs, centralizing government, taxes, infrastructure, and
laws
- It meant to increase the power and control of the despots while creating a better livable society
- It was drove by ‘Les Philosophes’ and military necessity
- However, the reforms were often limited by the inability to fully reshape hierarchical societies
- For instance, both the Church, nobility, and other traditional powers often resisted or limited reforms, as
they did not want to lose their power
- Therefore, enlightened despotism sometimes led to increased social unrest and problems, as reforms
clashed with established structures
- This eventually came to be one of the sources of the French revolution
