Revision – HisMoW Endterm
Lecture 7
Wars of Kings (1648-1789): wars limited in scale, fought by mercenaries, and involved shifting
alliances between monarchs.
Moder Warfare (post-1789): Total War (form of war characterized by the complete mobilization of a
nation’s resources, both military and civilian, to support the war effort), fought by national armies drawn
by general conscription, and involved the close connection between war and political objectives.
Causes of WWI: end of the Concert of Europe (1815-1871), imperialism, Franco-Prussian War (1870-
71), international anarchy.
Bismarck’s Alliances (1871-1890) aimed to consolidate Germany’s position in Europe and prevent
France from forming strong alliances: Zweibund (1879), Dreikaiserbund (1881), Dreibund (1882),
Reinsurance Treaty (1887); Bismarck’s system relied on Realpolitik (pragmatic diplomacy aimed at
preventing a two-front war).
Mass society and industrial capitalism, alongside nationalism, social Darwinism, mass politics,
monopolism and cartelization in the economy, protectionism, and limited diplomatic flexibility.
Major European Powers Before WWI
Great Britain: policy of “splendid isolation”, jingoism (aggressive nationalism), Navy League (strong
navy), Tariff Reform League (protectionism), no more rivalry with France (Entente Cordiale in 1904)
and Russia, but new competition with Germany.
France: chauvinism (extreme patriotism) and revanchism (desire for revenge) after the Franco-Prussian
War, antagonism towards Germany, internal political struggles (Dreyfus Affair).
Austrian-Hungarian Empire: very conservative declining multi-ethnic empire, faced Slavic nationalism
and was obsessed with controlling the Balkans, economically and politically backward, allied with
Germany to counter Russia.
Russia: struggled with defensive modernization, was lagging behind, embraced Pan-Slavism and looked
to expand influence in the Balkans, wanted to secure an ice-free port, allied with France (1894) and
Britain (1907), forming the Triple Entente.
Germany: delayed nation, Weltpolitik aiming for a “Place in the sun”, achieved through imperialist
foreign policies, aggressive diplomacy, rising nationalism, rivalry with France, Britain, and Russia,
focus on Dreibund (with Austria-Hungary and Italy).
,Schlieffen Plan (1914) was a plan aiming for a two-front war against France and Russia, justified by
the Risiko-gedanke (“war before it is too late”), involving passing through Belgium to attack France
from the North and crush the enemy.
“The Great War” (1914-1918)
The outbreak (1914)
- June 28: assassination of the Austrian successor in Sarajevo (Archduke Franz Ferdinand)
- July 28: Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia
- July 30: Russia mobilizes in support of Serbia
- August 1: Germany declares war on Russia
- August 3: Germany declares war on France
- August 4: Britain declares was on Germany
Famous for: use of trench warfare, mustard gas, machine artillery, submarines, loss of lives, expensive
battles, almost no gaining of land, Total War, rationalization of production, state intervention,
centralized planning, conscription and workforce (including women), censorship and propaganda,
biased perceptions of enemy nations, intense nationalism, cultural pessimism.
Turning points (1917)
- January 31: US enters the war
- February and October: French Revolution
- September: Germany comes under a military dictatorship led by Ludendorff and Hindenburg
- November: Georges Clemenceau revitalizes French war efforts
Wilson’s Fourteen Points (1918) emphasize transparency in international relations, opposed secret
treaties, argued for Freedom of the seas, self-determination and autonomy for colonized people,
establishment of an international body (the League of Nations), shaped by Enlightenment ideals, where
democracy and liberal internationalism can flourish.
Punitive Peace of Versailles (1919) placed sole blame for the war on Germany (“Alleinschuld”),
including territorial losses for Central Powers, loss of overseas colonies diminishing Germany’s global
influence, alongside severe military limitations and restrictions, massive reparations collapse of Austro-
Hungarian and Ottoman Empires, leading to fueled resentment (in Italy as well!).
, Russian Revolution (1917)
February (8-16 March)
During World War I, Russia suffered devastating defeats by Germany, exposing deep flaws in the
bureaucratic and military infrastructure of Tsarist Russia, eventually reading to disillusionment and
mistrust in Tsar Nicholas II and Tsarina Alexandra, who was accused of being a German spy; moreover,
economic hardship intensified (+ strikes, food shortages, hunger), fueling revolutionary sentiment.
Eventually the unrest culminated with the abdication of the Tsar, marking the end of the Romanov
dynasty. This was followed by the establishment of a new Provisional Government dominated by
liberals under Prince Lvov, later replaced by Alexander Kerensky, alongside the Petrograd Soviet, a
council representing workers and soldiers, including revolutionary factions (Bolsheviks, Mensheviks,
and Socialist Revolutionaries): this created a dual power dynamic.
In April 1917, Lenin returned to Russia from exile and published the April Theses, which were a set of
directives outlining his vision for the Russian Revolution. Key points included rejecting the Provisional
Government and demanding power be given to the Soviets (workers’ councils), calling for Russia’s
immediate withdrawal from World War I, proposing the nationalization of land and its redistribution to
peasants, advocating for a socialist revolution rather than a continued bourgeois phase, and supporting
international revolution to spread socialism globally.
October (7 November)
The “Bolshevik Revolution”, led by Lenin and Leon Trotsky, marked the Bolsheviks’ rise to power.
Trotsky, as chair of the Petrograd Soviet, organized the Red Guards, the Bolsheviks’ armed militia. On
October 25, 1917 (Julian calendar), the Bolsheviks seized key government buildings in Petrograd,
overthrowing the Provisional Government. By November, the Soviets declared full sovereignty,
introducing radical reforms, including the nationalization of land and factories.
Peace of Brest-Litovsk (March 3, 1918) ended Russia’s participation in World War I, but at the cost of
significant territorial concessions to Germany. Despite the heavy loss of Ukraine, Poland, and the Baltic
states, the treaty allowed the Bolsheviks to focus on internal consolidation and the looming civil war.
World War I became a historical turning point, leading to the fall of the Tsarist regime and the rise of
the Soviet Union, the collapse of empires like Austro-Hungary, Germany, and the Ottomans, and the
weakening of European dominance as the U.S. emerged as a global power. The war also fueled
nationalist movements in colonies, increased labor union influence due to labor shortages, advanced
women’s rights through expanded suffrage, and expanded state intervention in economies, setting a
model for future government control.
