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Summary Inleiding tot de Psychologie ; Peter gray ; Hoofdstuk 1-8 €9,95
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Summary Inleiding tot de Psychologie ; Peter gray ; Hoofdstuk 1-8
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Dit document is een samenvatting (In het Engels) van de eerste 8 hoofdstukken van het boek "Psychology" door Peter Gray & David F. Bjorklund. De samenvatting is volledig en gedetailleerd genoeg en het vat 300 Pagina's samen in maar 56 Pagina's. Ook wordt er gebruik gemaakt van plaatjes en kleuren o...

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  • Hoofdstuk 1-8
  • 11 december 2024
  • 56
  • 2015/2016
  • Samenvatting

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Psychology
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Part I foundations for the study of psychology

Chapter 1: background to the study psychology

Psychology is the science of behavior and the mind

Individuals sensations, perceptions, memories, dreams ...


Observable actions of a person or an animal


attempts to answer questions through systematic collection and logical analysis of objectively observable data


Three fundamental ideas for psychology: A historical overview

Founding of psychology → 1879 Wilhelm Wundt in Germany


Ideas: 1. Behavior and mental experiences have physical causes that can be studied scientifically


2. The way people behave, think, and feel is modified overtime by their experiences in their environment.


3. The body's machinery, which produces behavior and mental experiences, is a product of evolution by natural selection.


1.1. The idea of physical causation of behavior.

Dualism: human body = material body + immaterial soul


Natural law Own free will


1.1.1. Descartes' version of dualism: focus on the body. (1596 - 1650) Still focus on the body


One essential ability that humans have but animals don't is thought Conscious deliberation and judgement


Complex behaviors = mechanical means. No involvement of the soul. Later seen as reflexes as eating, drinking, sleeping... Pure mechanically

Soul acts on the body at a particular physical location: a small organ between the two hemispheres of the brain


→ role of sense organs → nerves → muscles


Limitations: as a philosophy: how can a nonmaterial entity have a material effect or how can the body follow natural law as the soul does not
as a psychology: Strict limits on what can and cannot be understood scientifically




1.1.2. Thomas Hobbes and the philosophy of materialism (1588 - 1679)


Leviathan → soul = meaningless concept, nothing exists but matter and energy = materialism


Conscious thought = product of the brain's machinery → subject to natural law




Body + brain = machine → promote physiology


Increased understanding of reflexes Carry messages into the central nervous system from the skin's sensory


François Magendie: nerves entering spinal cord contain two different pathways

Carry messages out to operate muscles

, Suggestion that all human behavior occurs through reflexes → stimulated by nature.


Stimuli → sensory receptors → chain of events in the nervous system → muscle movement → action


The concept of localization of function in the Brain.

Specific parts of the brain → specific functions Injury to a specific area = lose ability to speak but don't lose other mental abilities.


1.2 The idea that the mind and behavior are shaped by experience


Empiricism = idea that human knowledge and thought derive ultimately from sensory experience


John Locke (1632 - 1704) A child's mind is a blank slate → experience fills this slate


"Human nature is the ability to adapt one's behavior to the demands of the environment."


1.2.1. The empiricist concept of association by contiguity

Thoughts ≠ free will but reflections of a person's experience in the physical and social environment.


Law of association by contiguity by Aristotle One event + other event = associated in the mind → thought of one event will elicit the thought of the other

Example: bite in apple = taste, texture, color,
Closeness in space or time sound of "apple", so later if you encounter "red"
you think automatically of apple.
John Stuart hill (1843 - 1875) = mental chemistry


1.2.2. The nativist response to empiricism

Empiricism >< nativism Nativism = most basic forms of human knowledge are inborn ≠ experience

A priori: built into the human brain and does not have to be learned


Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804) A posteriori: gains from experience



Without a priori you don't have a posteriori Example: learning a language


1.3. The idea that the machinery of behavior and mind evolved through natural selection


1.3.1. Natural selection and the analysis of the functions of behavior


Charles Darwin (1809-1882): living things evolve gradually by a process of natural selection


Tendencies to behave in ways to promote their survival and reproduction.

Physiologist → neural mechanisms of behavior Empiricist → lawful relationship between behavior and environment Darwin → functions of behavior to help survive and
reproduce




Darwin's ideas to psychology


Darwin = first evolutionary psychologist → evolutionary thinking can contribute to scientific understanding of human behavior

Basic forms of human emotions are inherited → came gradually because they promoted survival and reproduction


Natural selection = scientific foundation for nativist views of the mind.

,The scope of psychology
Prior Influence of
Brain Genes experiences Age-related
other people
1.4. Varieties of explanations in psychology and their application to sexual jealousy

Level of analysis = level/ type of causal process that is studied 9 levels : neural, physiological, genetic, evolutionary, learning, cognitive, social, cultural, developmental


Internal chemical Natural Knowledge Culture
Biological cluster Effects of experience and knowledge
functions (hormones) selection /beliefs

1.4.1. Explanations that focus on biological processes

Neural explanations→ all behaviors and mental experiences are products of the nervous system.


Behavioral neuroscience Specific brain areas became active when experiencing sexual jealousy.


Physiological explanations → Biopsychology: how do hormones and drugs act on the brain → e.g. Puberty hormones


Genetic explanations → differences in genes = differences in brain = differences in behavior and mental experiences.


Behavioral genetics

Evolutionary explanations → evolutionary psychology: how did species evolve in function of survival and reproduction


Jealousy promotes long-term mating bonds.


1.4.2. Explanations that focus on environmental experiences, knowledge, and development.

Learning explanations → Learning psychology = Behavioral psychology: human behavior can be influenced by past experiences. This can effect emotions, drives, habits...


4 Understand most efficient ways to learn new skills

Cognitive explanations → information in the mind = stored and activated by the workings of the brain


Thoughts, beliefs, memories = conscious, person is aware can describe it

= cognitive psychology → focus on the mind. Relate learning experiences directly to behavioral changes

Learning = change in environment → change in behavior
Cognitive = change in environment → change in knowledge/beliefs → change in behavior


Social explanations → behavior is strongly influenced by our perceptions of others


Social psychology: behavior = social pressure influences e.g. Social norms, obedience to authority, living up to others' expectations

= social cognition: beliefs about others influences what a person does.


Cultural explanations → general customs and beliefs of a social group
Immediate social influences (conformity and obedience)

Cultural psychology: differs from social psychology in emphasis.


Entire cultures in typical ways that people within them feel, think, act... (History, economy, religion...)

Developmental explanations → age-related


Developmental psychology: processes to look at age-related changes (physical maturation of the body etc.)


Brings all the other levels together → how experiences at any given stage of development can influence behavior at later stages


1.4.3. Levels of analysis are complementary


Combined levels give us a complete picture of important aspects of psychology

,1.5. A comment on psychological specialities


Psychology research on 9 different levels of analysis


Also topic related psychology e.g. Sensor, perceptual, motivation, emotion General ways of thinking, feeling and behaving => personality traits


Two major specialities for understanding individual differences. → personality psychology and abnormal psychology.


Extreme and disruptive traits => mental disorders

Leads to clinical psychology = helping people with mental disorders


1.6. Psychology connects with other scholarly fields


Spectrum of disciplines


Psychology is the study of all that people do.




1.7. Psychology as a profession

Academic departments in uni and colleges → basic research

Clinical settings → clients with psychological problems/disorders


Elementary and secondary schools → supervise programs for children with special needs

Business and government → conducting research, screening job candidates, work-related problems...


Chapter 2: Methods of psychology

Lessons from clever Hans

2.1. The mystery


Mr. Von Osten → horses are as intelligent as people Trained his horse → yes/no or tapping with hoof taps


Many scientist did research but conclusion that Hans was intelligent and could answer all the questions.


2.2. The solution Learned to respond on gestures instead of being as intelligent as humans.

Oskar Pfungst → Hans did not understand the questions, responds by visual signals produced by observer or questioner


Movements were subtle until pointed out. Head movements or body movements.


2.3. Observations, theories, and hypotheses.

Observation = objective statement that reasonable observers agree to be true e.g. Behaviors, reliable patterns..


Theory = an idea or conceptual model, that is designed to explain existing observations and make predictions about new observations.


Hypothesis = any prediction about a new observation that is made from a theory

Cycle of science = observations → theories → hypotheses → experiments → observations →...

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