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Summary Exam 1 Current Topics: A Clinical Perspective on Today's Issues UvA Year 3
- Instelling
- Universiteit Van Amsterdam (UvA)
Summary of Current Topics: A Clinical Perspective on Today's Issues Exam 1
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Voorbeeld 3 van de 24 pagina's
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Voorbeeld van de inhoud
WEEK 1ARTICLE BY HYDE ET AL. (2019) – THE FUTURE OF SEX AND GENDER IN
PSYCHOLOGY: FIVE CHALLENGES TO THE GENDER BINARY
Gender binary: The core belief that there are two discrete categories into which all individuals
can be sorted – Typically assumes that one’s category membership is biologically determined,
apparent at birth, stable over time, salient and meaningful to the self, and a powerful predictor
of a host of psychological variables
Sex: Refers to biological systems involving the X and Y chromosomes
Gender: Refers to sociocultural systems that include norms and expectations
Transgender: An umbrella term for individuals who self-label differently than their birth-
assigned category
Cisgender: Individuals whose self-labelling is the same as their birth-assigned category
Nonbinary: Individuals who self identify in ways outside the categories of female and male
Two fundamental assumptions that underlie current thinking about sex as a biological system
and its relations with other systems:
1. Sex is a dimorphic system (i.e. has two distinct categories)
2. The effects of sex on other systems such as the brain or gender identity are
characterised by a dimorphic outcome
However:
Most brains show a mosaic of features; some typical of males, some of females, and some
intermediate + Sex differences in brain structure can vary based on environmental factors
How belief in a gender binary is found in behavioural neuroendocrinology:
1. Gonadal hormones are dimorphic
2. Levels of these hormones are genetically determined and fixed
However:
Oestrogen, progesterone and testosterone are found in all bodies, regardless of gender, and
their levels often overlap across sexes + Hormone levels vary with social context, life stages
and behaviours, such as nurturing or competitive activities, contradicting the notion of a static
gender binary
Psychological research challenging gender dimorphism suggests that individuals rarely fit
strictly ‘male’ or ‘female’ psychological profiles → Study: In college students’ engagement in
highly gender-stereotyped activities, less than 1% showed strictly ‘masculine’ or ‘feminine’
behaviours, while over 55% exhibited a blend of both – Internal consistency where traits align
exclusively with one gender is rare
Meta-analyses of research on psycho logical gender differences:
- Mathematic performance: Despite stereotypes, girls and boys perform similarly in
mathematics
, - Depression: While women are twice as likely to be diagnosed with depression, about
one-third of those with depression are men
- Sexuality: Most differences are in sexual attitudes and behaviours are small, with
larger gaps in pornography use and casual sex attitudes – Differences vary across
cultures and correlate with women’s empowerment levels; in more gender-empowered
societies, these gaps are smaller
Gender similarity hypothesis: States that men and women are very similar on most, but not
all, psychological variables, with exceptions in the areas of aggression and sexuality
Key challenges to the gender binary:
1. Birth-assigned categories are imperfect for predicting how a person will self-label
their gender identity – Gender identity is a stronger predictor of experience than sex
category assigned at birth
2. Nonbinary gender identity
3. Self-labelling with respect to gender (i.e. ‘being gender’) is separable from the
enactment of traits, roles, and behaviours (i.e. ‘doing gender’)
- Gender performativity: Gender is a performance of societal norms that feels
like natural behaviour
- Tate: Conceptualises gender as a bundle of interrelated and integrated aspects
such as birth-assigned category, current identity, gender roles, social
presentation and social evaluations – Combines ‘being’ and ‘doing’ gender
Developmental psychology challenges the assumption that gender is an innate, hardwired
social category, suggesting instead that it is reinforced through cultural practices and
environments
- Developmental intergroup theory: Posits that children’s categorisation of people into
social groups is not an automatic, innate process but is influenced by a combination of
individual cognitive abilities, personal experiences and environmental cues provided
by society
- Linguistic categorisation induces essentialist reasoning about categories, or the belief
that things have natures or underlying essences
- Explicit sorting: The clear, direct use of social categories to organise people, often
done openly and intentionally (E.g.: teachers may divide children into groups based on
visible characteristics like gender for activities or competitions)
- Implicit sorting: Involves passive cues in the environment that suggest social divisions
without directly stating them (E.g.: adults assigning certain roles ‘helper’ roles to girls
and ‘leader’ roles to boys)
Societal costs of the gender binary:
1. Using the binary gender model oversimplifies complex phenomena, such as hormone
levels and behaviours, and limits the understanding of the many nuanced ways that
biological and social factors interact in gender expression and identity
2. People who do not fit neatly into ‘male’ or ‘female’ categories, such as intersex and
nonbinary individuals, often face denial of their identity and autonomy
3. The binary perspective enhances misapplication in education and policy
4. Gender stereotypes can hinder academic and professional growth
, A new, expansive conceptualisation of gender/sex:
1. Gender and sex are closely intertwined such that sex cannot be studied without
consideration of gender, and studies of gender can often benefit from considering sex
as well → A new term is introduced = ‘Gender/sex’
2. Gender/sex is multidimensional and each component is dynamic and responsive to
both internal forces and external forces
3. Individuals show variability across the different components of gender/sex that may
not all align in a single category of the gender binary
4. Thinking of oneself and others in terms of gender/sex is not inevitable
ARTICLE BY REILLY (2019) – GENDER CAN BE A CONTINUOUS VARIABLE,
NOT JUST A CATEGORICAL ONE: COMMENT ON HYDE, BIGLER, JOEL, TATE
AND VAN ANDERS (2019)
Reilly: Supports the view of Hyde et al. that gender is more accurately represented as a
continuous variable – Rigid, binary definitions of gender overlook individual variability and
lead to stereotypes that affect social attitudes and clinical practices, whereas understanding
gender as a continuum can reduce stigma and improve inclusivity in various fields
Sex-role identification: The process of developing stereotypically masculine and feminine
personality traits, interests and beliefs
Androgyny: The integration of both masculine and feminine traits – Affords greater cognitive
and behavioural flexibility and is linked to better psychological health
ARTICLE BY CRETELLA, ROSIK & HOWSEPIAN (2019) – SEX AND GENDER
ARE DISTINCT VARIABLES CRITICAL TO HEALTH: COMMENT ON HYDE,
BIGLER, JOEL, TATE AND VAN ANDERS (2019)
Cretella et al.: Argue that biological sex is a crucial, binary, innate variable in medical
contexts, while recognising that gender identity is fluid and complex → Genetic differences
between males and females are present in every cell and affect all organ systems, and these
differences impact how men and women experience disease, respond to medications, and
process emotions – Ignoring biological distinctions in healthcare could harm patients
ARTICLE BY GALUPO, PULICE-FARROW & PEHL (2021) – ‘THERE IS
NOTHING TO DO ABOUT IT’: NONBINARY INDIVIDUALS’ EXPERIENCE OF
GENDER DYSPHORIA
Six main themes that uniquely describe gender dysphoria in relation to a nonbinary identity:
1. Androgyny: Many participants desired an androgynous or fluid appearance, as they felt
this best aligned with their gender identity
2. Feminine and masculine traits: Participants expressed discomfort with traits that were
overly feminine or masculine
3. Dysphoria vs. appearance and expression: Gender dysphoria is often linked to
specific gendered presentations, leading participants to adjust their appearance to feel
more comfortable
4. Varying or shifting dysphoria: Dysphoria fluctuated with fluid gender identity,
changing with hormonal shifts, body shape and other factors
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