• CIT is central to taxing capital income effectively.
• Key questions:
o Should the tax target companies or their shareholders?
o How does taxation impact individuals indirectly connected to
corporations (e.g., employees, suppliers)?
• Burden-Shifting Challenge:
o Corporations attempt to pass the tax burden to other stakeholders.
o Data on the extent of this burden shift remains unreliable.
Relationship Between CIT and PIT
Key Systems:
1. Partnership Method:
o Treats company income as individual income for participants.
o Challenges include:
▪ Timing differences in income realization versus distribution.
▪ Classification of income as dividend or transparency-based
earnings.
2. Classical System:
o Income is taxed twice:
▪ At the corporate level with CIT.
▪ At the shareholder level with PIT.
o Double Taxation Relief:
▪ Reduced CIT rates.
▪ Deducting dividends (partial or full).
▪ Allowance for Corporate Equity (ACE) for primary remuneration.
3. Examples:
, o Practical cases illustrate these systems and mechanisms to address their
shortcomings.
Justifications for CIT
Legal Justifications:
1. Anthropomorphic Vision:
o CIT parallels PIT for natural persons.
2. Overall Balance Theory:
o Ensures fairness between individuals conducting business directly versus
through corporations.
3. Compensation Theory:
o Compensates for unrealized gains by shareholders.
4. Direct Benefit Principle:
o Taxes corporations benefiting collectively from government services.
5. Favorable Receipt Principle:
o Tax based on the advantage or “rent” gained.
Economic Justifications:
1. Distortion Mitigation:
o CIT can lead to inefficiencies but remains necessary for economic
balance.
2. Focus on Economic Rents:
o "Sitting duck taxes" target immobile, stable tax bases like rents.
3. Mobility Considerations:
o Mobile capital is taxed lightly to remain competitive, influencing
investment flows.
Economic Impacts of CIT
Economic Distortions:
1. Investment Decisions:
, o High CIT rates discourage marginal investments.
2. Financing Choices:
o Preference for debt financing due to interest deductibility.
3. Transfer Pricing:
o Encourages profit-shifting to low-tax jurisdictions.
Examples of Distortions:
• Case studies of investment decisions between high-tax and low-tax countries.
• Impact of CIT on distribution versus reinvestment of profits.
International Tax Systems and Competition
Key Insights:
1. Role of CIT in Competition:
o Countries use CIT as a tool to attract investments.
o Strategies include tax holidays, special regimes, and incentives for R&D.
2. Tax Treaties:
o The Netherlands exemplifies a country with extensive treaties, reducing
withholding taxes on dividends, interest, and royalties.
3. BEPS (Base Erosion and Profit Shifting):
o OECD initiatives aim to curb profit-shifting by multinational enterprises
(MNEs).
o Measures like the Multilateral Instrument (MLI) and Anti-Tax Avoidance
Directives (ATAD) are being implemented.
Harmful Tax Competition:
• Defined by the Primarolo Committee and addressed through the EU’s Code of
Conduct.
• Balances between healthy competition and avoiding a "race to the bottom."
Tax Rate Considerations
Rate Variations:
, 1. General Comparisons:
o Different rates for PIT and CIT raise equity concerns.
o Aligning rates requires balancing shareholder equity and economic
competitiveness.
2. International Trends:
o OECD proposals for minimum global tax rates (e.g., Pillar Two).
o Differentiated taxes based on income types (distributed vs. retained).
Anti-Avoidance Measures:
1. Deferral Issues:
o Strategies to tax non-distributed earnings at higher rates.
2. Global Initiatives:
o Measures to prevent profit deferral and reduce aggressive tax planning.
Tax Avoidance and Its Impact
Global Concerns:
1. Scale of Tax Avoidance:
o OECD estimates a loss of $100-240 billion annually due to BEPS.
o Other studies show global avoidance ranges from $50 billion to $280
billion.
2. Case Studies:
o Examples of MNEs (e.g., Apple, Google) leveraging low-tax jurisdictions.
o Role of investment hubs like Ireland, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands.
Solutions:
1. Transparency and Substance Requirements:
o Strengthening rules to ensure companies are "active" in tax treaty
jurisdictions.
2. Country-by-Country Reporting:
o Increasing accountability by requiring detailed financial disclosures.
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