Leadership – theory and practice
Northouse chapter 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,15,16,13,14
Week 1 chapter 1-4
Introduction of course; Overview and definition of leadership traits, skills and behaviors
Chapter 1 Introduction
Leadership is a highly sought-after and highly valued commodity.
- People continue to ask themselves and others what makes good leaders. As individuals, they
seek more information on how to become effective leaders.
- Many people believe that leadership is a way to improve their personal, social, and professional
lives.
- Corporations seek those with leadership ability because they believe they bring special assets to
their organizations and, ultimately, improve the bottom line.
Research on leadership is increasing dramatically; findings underscore that there is a wide variety of
different theoretical approaches to explain the complexities of the leadership process.
- Some researchers conceptualize leadership as a trait or as a behavior, whereas others view
leadership from an information-processing perspective or relational standpoint.
This book treats leadership as a complex process having multiple dimensions.
The definition of ‘leadership’: many definitions. Words can have different meanings for different people.
Rost (1991) analyzed materials written from 1900 to 1990, finding more than 200 different definitions for
leadership. His analysis provides a succinct history of how leadership has been defined through the last
century:
1900–1929
Definitions of leadership appearing in the first three decades of the 20th century emphasized control and
centralization of power with a common theme of domination. For example, at a conference on leadership
in 1927, leadership was defined as “the ability to impress the will of the leader on those led and induce
obedience, respect, loyalty, and cooperation” (Moore, 1927, p. 124).
1930s
In the 1930s, traits became the focus of defining leadership, with an emerging view of leadership as
influence rather than domination. Leadership was also identified as the interaction of an individual’s
specific personality traits with those of a group; it was noted that while the attitudes and activities of the
many may be changed by the one, the many may also influence a leader.
1940s
The group approach came into the forefront in the 1940s with leadership being defined as the behavior
of an individual while involved in directing group activities (Hemphill, 1949). At the same time, leadership
by persuasion was distinguished from “drivership” or leadership by coercion (Copeland, 1942).
1950s
Three themes dominated leadership definitions during the 1950s:
Continuance of group theory, which framed leadership as what leaders do in groups;
Leadership as a relationship that develops shared goals, which defined leadership based on
behavior of the leader; and
Effectiveness, in which leadership was defined by the ability to influence overall group
effectiveness.
1960s
Although a tumultuous time for world affairs, the 1960s saw harmony amongst leadership scholars. The
prevailing definition of leadership as behavior that influences people toward shared goals was
,underscored by Seeman (1960), who described leadership as “acts by persons which influence other
persons in a shared direction” (p. 53).
1970s
In the 1970s, the group focus gave way to the organizational behavior approach, where leadership
became viewed as “initiating and maintaining groups or organizations to accomplish group or
organizational goals” (Rost, 1991, p. 59). Burns’s (1978) definition, however, was the most important
concept of leadership to emerge: “Leadership is the reciprocal process of mobilizing by persons with
certain motives and values, various economic, political, and other resources, in a context of competition
and conflict, in order to realize goals independently or mutually held by both leaders and followers” (p.
425).
1980s
The 1980s exploded with scholarly and popular works on the nature of leadership, bringing the topic to
the apex of the academic and public consciousness. As a result, the number of definitions for leadership
became a prolific stew with several persevering themes:
Do as the leader wishes. Leadership definitions still predominantly delivered the message that
leadership is getting followers to do what the leader wants done.
Influence. Probably the most often used word in leadership definitions of the 1980s, influence
was examined from every angle. In an effort to distinguish leadership from management,
however, scholars insisted that leadership is noncoercive influence.
Traits. Spurred by the national best seller In Search of Excellence (Peters & Waterman, 1982),
the leadership-as-excellence movement brought leader traits back to the spotlight. As a result,
many people’s understanding of leadership is based on a trait orientation.
Transformation. Burns (1978) is credited for initiating a movement defining leadership as a
transformational process, stating that leadership occurs “when one or more persons engage with
others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation
and morality” (p. 83).
From the 1990s Into the 21st Century
Debate continues as to whether leadership and management are separate processes, but emerging
research emphasizes the process of leadership, whereby an individual influences a group of individuals
to achieve a common goal, rather than developing new ways of defining leadership. Among these
emerging leadership approaches are
Authentic leadership, in which the authenticity of leaders and their leadership is emphasized;
Spiritual leadership, which focuses on leadership that utilizes values and sense of calling and
membership to motivate followers;
Servant leadership, which puts the leader in the role of servant, who utilizes “caring principles” to
focus on followers’ needs to help these followers become more autonomous, knowledgeable, and
like servants themselves;
Adaptive leadership, in which leaders encourage followers to adapt by confronting and solving
problems, challenges, and changes;
Followership, which puts a spotlight on followers and the role followers play in the leadership
process; and
Discursive leadership, which posits that leadership is created not so much through leader traits,
skills, and behaviors, but through communication practices that are negotiated between leader
and follower (Aritz, Walker, Cardon, & Zhang, 2017; Fairhurst, 2007).
After decades of dissonance, leadership scholars agree on one thing: They can’t come up with a
common definition for leadership. Because of such factors as growing global influences and
generational differences, leadership will continue to have different meanings for different people.
The bottom line is that leadership is a complex concept for which a determined definition may long be
in flux.
Conceptualizing leadership:
Fleishman et al 1991: He suggested that some definitions view leadership as the focus of group
processes: the leader is at the center of group change and activity and embodies the will of the
group.
, Personality perspective, which suggests that leadership is a combination of special traits or
characteristics that some individuals possess. These traits enable those individuals to induce
others to accomplish tasks.
Other approaches to leadership define it as an act or a behavior—the things leaders do to bring
about change in a group.
Some define leadership in terms of the power relationship that exists between leaders and
followers. From this viewpoint, leaders have power that they wield to effect change in others
Others view leadership as a transformational process that moves followers to accomplish more
than is usually expected of them.
Finally, some scholars address leadership from a skills perspective. This viewpoint stresses the
capabilities (knowledge and skills) that make effective leadership possible.
Despite the multitude of ways in which leadership has been conceptualized (see above); the following
components can be identified as central to the phenomenon:
(a) Leadership is a process
(b) Leadership involves influence
(c) Leadership occurs in groups
(d) Leadership involves common goals
Based on these components, the following definition of leadership is used in this text/book:
“Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a
common goal. “
(a) Leadership is a process;
It is no trait/characteristic that resides the leader, but it is a transactional event that occurs
between the leader and the followers.
Process implies that a leader affects and is affected by followers.
Leadership is not a linear, one-way event, but rather an interactive event; it becomes available to
everyone; not restricted to the formally designated leader in a group.
(b) Leadership involves influence
Concerned with how the leader affects followers and communication that occurs between leaders
and followers.
Without influence, leadership does not exist.
(c) Leadership occurs in groups
Groups are the context in which leadership takes place.
Influencing a group (small task-, community- or large group) of individuals who have a common
purpose.
One individual influencing a group of others to accomplish common goals
A group; others; are required for leadership to occur.
Leadership training programs that teach people to lead themselves are not considered as part of
leadership.
(d) Leadership involves common goals
Leaders direct their energies toward individuals who are trying to achieve something together.
o Common = leaders and followers have a mutual purpose. ‘Common goals’ stresses the
need for leaders to work with followers to achieve selected goals = ethical overtone.
o Mutuality = lessens the possibility that leaders might act toward followers in ways that are
forced/unethical.
o This increases the possibility that leaders and followers will work together toward a
common goal.
Throughout this text, the people who engage in leadership will be called leaders, and those toward
whom leadership is directed will be called followers. Both leaders and followers are involved together in
the leadership process. Leaders need followers, and followers need leaders.
, It is the leader who often initiates the relationship, creates the communication linkages, and carries
the burden for maintaining the relationship.
Leader issues & follower issues:
Leaders have an ethical responsibility to attend to the needs and concerns of followers.
Leaders are not above or better than followers. Leaders and followers must be understood in
relation to each other.
They are in the leadership relationship together—and are two sides of the same coin
How leadership differs from management:
In the following section, we will address questions such as
“How leadership as a trait differs from leadership as a process”
“How appointed leadership differs from emergent leadership”
“How the concepts of power, coercion, and management differ from leadership”
Trait versus process leadership:
He is born to be a leader” or “She is a natural leader.” These statements are commonly
expressed by people who take a trait perspective toward leadership.
o Suggests that certain individuals have special innate or inborn characteristics or qualities
that make them leaders, and that it is these qualities that differentiate them from
nonleaders.
o The trait viewpoint conceptualizes leadership as a property or set of properties possessed
in varying degrees by different people. it resides in select people and restricts leadership
to those who are believed to have special, usually inborn, talents.
o Some of the personal qualities used to identify leaders include:
Pyshical factors; height
Personality factors; extraversion
Other characteristics; intelligence & fluency
The process viewpoint suggests that leadership is a phenomenon that resides in the context of
the interactions between leaders and followers and makes leadership available to everyone
o As a process, leadership can be observed in leader behaviors, and can be learned.
o The process definition of leadership is consistent with the definition of leadership that we
have set forth in this chapter.
Assigned versus emergent leadership:
Some people are leaders because of their formal position in an organization, whereas others are
leaders because of the way other group members respond to them. These two common forms of
leadership are called assigned leadership and emergent leadership.
