Public values and ethics
Ethics intro.............................................................................................................................................3
Public sector values................................................................................................................................5
Virtue ethics (Aristotle)..........................................................................................................................8
Main principles and concepts.............................................................................................................8
Other concepts and definitions..........................................................................................................8
The four problems elaborated............................................................................................................9
Natural law Ethics (Aquinas).................................................................................................................10
Main principles and concepts...........................................................................................................10
Other concepts and definitions........................................................................................................10
The four problems elaborated..........................................................................................................12
Social Contract Ethics (Hobbes)............................................................................................................13
Main principles and concepts...........................................................................................................13
Other concepts and definitions........................................................................................................15
The four problems elaborated..........................................................................................................15
Differentiation from other ethics......................................................................................................15
Utilitarian ethics (Hume and Bentham)................................................................................................16
Main principles and concepts...........................................................................................................16
Other concepts and definitions........................................................................................................17
The four problems elaborated..........................................................................................................17
Differences from other ethics...........................................................................................................17
Deontology (Kant)................................................................................................................................18
Main principles and concepts...........................................................................................................18
Other concepts and definitions........................................................................................................19
The four problems elaborated..........................................................................................................19
Differentiation from other ethics......................................................................................................19
Care ethics............................................................................................................................................20
Main principles and concepts...........................................................................................................20
Other concepts and definitions........................................................................................................21
The four problems elaborated..........................................................................................................21
Differentiation from other ethics......................................................................................................21
Political ethics.......................................................................................................................................22
Dirty hands (Walzer).............................................................................................................................23
Many hands (Thompson)......................................................................................................................24
Volitional excuses.............................................................................................................................25
,Corruption............................................................................................................................................26
Integrity................................................................................................................................................28
Enforcement.................................................................................................................................30
Integrity/value-based approach.......................................................................................................31
Ethical leadership.................................................................................................................................32
Integrity (Hubert)..................................................................................................................................34
Corruption (Johnson)............................................................................................................................36
Managing public values........................................................................................................................39
Ethical Culture..................................................................................................................................40
Ethical performance.........................................................................................................................41
Public policy ethics...............................................................................................................................43
Public interest...................................................................................................................................44
Changing landscape of public services..............................................................................................45
Public value (Walzer)............................................................................................................................46
,Ethics intro
Ethics
Set of principles that provide a framework for right action/decisions.
The systematic/critical reflection on morality
It helps us to understand why something is moral (right/wrong).
Different types of ethics Normative (should) Non-normative
General Normative ethics (e.g. what Meta-ethics (the study of ethics
should people do) themselves, e.g. what does Kant
mean with imperative)
Specific Applied ethics (e.g. what should a Descriptive ethics (what actual
public official do) people find ethic)
Critics of ethics
Dogmatism: Ethics are not necessary since all the answers are already given (e.g. holy book).
Scientism: Ethics can never be a science since it is normative.
Emotivism: Ethics are a statement about emotions of something
Morality
It the effort to guide one’s conduct with reason while giving equal weight to the interests to the
affected individuals of his actions.
The ideas and practices concerning good and bad, right and wrong.
Totality of views of people in society on right and wrong.
Values
Moral ends or qualities of worth
Something you deem important
Something to strive for (internal compass)
E.g. justice or loyalty
Norms
Concrete implementation of values
The rules that aim to promote or protect certain values
E.g. formal norm is regulation, shaking hands a informal norm
Ethical theories
Collection of ethical concepts and principles
Coherent whole to answer ethical questions or problems
Ethical tradition A theory that has a life of its own. It is a living theory.
Ethical issues
Issues that are concerned with right and wrong outcomes
There is frequent overlap with legislation but there is a lot of grey area
Common problems are given specific meanings locally
Ethical decisions
Decisions that involve ethical judgement and have ethical consequences.
The decisions can vary about subjects but always are important to a small group of people
,Subjectivism
There is no guarantee that chosen principles will be agreed to by anybody else
Cultural Relativism:
Cultural relativism states that different culture have different practices, standards and values.
Ethical Relativism
Ethical relativism states that all ethical standards are relative. Morality depends on culture.
One cannot judge the ethics of another society
Something is moral as it is in line with the folkway, which is developed by average people over a long
period of time
When in Rome, do as the Romans do
Ethical universalism
At least ethical values, standards or principal are not relative
Common ground between different cultures can be found
Supported by UDHR, science and DNA
Consequentialist ethics
Focus on the consequence of an action.
When there are more good consequences, it is ethical
It is allowed to override individual right as long as the outcome outweighs the costs.
Deontology
Morality of an action is based on the adherence to a rule, regardless of the consequences.
Treating other people as we would like treated ourselves.
Virtues
Incline to act in a certain way. E.g. exhibit qualities of goodness.
They do not come with birth and must be cultivated to become habitual
Justice and right-based approaches
A fair system of arrangement is one that both parties can agree to without knowing it if will benefit
them personally.
,Public sector values
Public sectors
Empirical
Approach Difference with private sector
Legal Public
Economic Funded by taxes and owned by states
Political Governed by political authorities
Ethical E.g. court vs car company
Reach Everyone (versus only the stakeholders)
Normative: differences based on specific public values
Public values
Moral ends that the public sector pursue
Provide normative consensus about rights of citizens, obligations of citizens and government
Principles on which the government should be based.
,Public Service Ethos (PSE)
Ethos = spirit/characteristic
Individuals are bound by, subscribe to, and motived by the PSE
- Provides guidance for action
- Inspires those who work in public organisation
Consists out of aspirational and normative ideologies
- to bind and motivate those who belong to such organisation
Organisational character: It is more sector/context based
It can force you to behave in an certain way, and can go against the PSM
Private sector can uphold PSE but are under strain by profit
Threatened by NPM and network as they can ‘crowd out’ values important to the public
Includes
- values: honesty, integrity, accountability
- processes: Recruitment and promotion based on merit
Dimensions of PSE
Public service belief Encapsulates why individuals are motivated to work in the public sector and
reflect personal attributes
E.g. altruism, compassion or wanting to make a difference in others’ lives
Explains why individuals might align to an ethos which puts public interests
before private interest
Public service practice Concerned with how organisational values, process and practices are perceived
to support motivation towards public service.
E.g. Accountability, fairness,
Indicates how individuals within public organisation should behave
Public interest Reflects the ends of public office such that individuals act in the interest of the
common good
Explains to what end this ethos serves
Public Work Motivation (PSM)
Defined as the belief, values and attitudes that go beyond self-interest
It motivates individuals to act when appropriate. (E.g. whistle blowing is higher, with high PSM)
Located inside the individuals.
Dimensions of PSM
Affective motivation Emotional attachment to a certain service
E.g. conviction of importance of a certain service, e.g. police
Normative motivation Attraction is based on ethical reasons
E.g. equity or fairness
Rational motivation Self-interest
E.g. leader who is attracted to policy making to promote such an interest
The biggest reasons is that motivate people to work in the public sector is that they want to
1) Making a difference 2) A job that satisfies them 3) A sufficient reward package.
,Public service organisations
Heterogenous and are dynamic, complex and consisting of competing values and cultures.
An overarching set of principles.
Principles of public service: selflessness, integrity, objectivity, accountability, openness, honesty,
leadership, respect for persons, duty to uphold the law, exercising legitimate authority
Public service values and belief
Time allocated to performance might come at the expense of other values
Requitement: ensure person and organization fit
- Promoting public service value and selecting individuals who are responsive to such
- Use situational judgement
Cultivating it page 77, table 4.2
Virtues
Virtues are necessary for good governance as well as for political in a broader sense.
Some important aspects are: ethical awareness, self-motivation, personal resilience, fearlessness,
perseverance, political sensitivity, leadership skills and interpersonal skills. It depends on the function
which aspect is valued more.
Ethics of care
Interested in the quality of the relationships between officials and clients on a day-to-day basis.
, Virtue ethics (Aristotle)
4 Problems
Origin of ethics It is a combination between human nature and society
Problem of relativism Appling the principle of the golden mean is the same in every culture
Human Nature People are rational social political beings that strive to flourish
What is moral You must act virtuous, you ought to act between vices. And living a life
accord with our rational and social natures.
Main principles and concepts
Virtues are excellent character traits that are good for a person to have. It leads to an achievement
of happiness or flourishing/wellbeing. E.g. tolerance, generosity, integrity, honesty, and kindness.
Moral virtues contribute to happiness and well-being
Principle of the golden mean
Moral virtue is the mean between to extremes vices. The mean is not actually mathematical mean. It
is also not a one-size-fits-all concept, it can vary per person.
An example is that one should live between afraid and confident state. If one lives without fear, they
are rash. While if someone overcomes with fear, they become cowardly. Both are not a moral virtue,
but the mean is: courage.
Development of morals
Moral virtue needs to be developed and is not given by birth. Aristoteles view that humans have a
rational soul which provides us the capacity to control feelings. If the feelings are handled well, the
virtues develop.
The development happens in 4 stages and through repetition can it become second nature.
Potential => repeated actions => formation of habits => character
There is an input/output dynamic present in virtues. The input phase is the development, the output
phase are the effortless actions. E.g. learning the instrument and the mastery of an instrument.
Role model is a person who possesses and displays developed character traits (E.g. god). It is
important as humans learn by imitating others due to the social nature. The (lack of) virtues from
people can influence other’s virtues.
Other concepts and definitions
Vices are the opposite of a virtue
Intellectual virtues is about controlling your thought while moral virtues are about controlling your
emotions. E.g. prudence.
Character is the concept that each person possesses a distinctive grouping of traits. Good habits (i.e.
virtues) are building block of a good moral character.
