What to know for European history:
Antiquity:
how did Athens develop into a democracy?
Aristocracy -> meritocracy (reforms of Solon) -> tyranny -> ostracism (reforms of Cleisthenes
and beginning of democracy) -> reforms of Ephialates -> 2x oligarchy by Sparta (thirty
tyrants)
First Aristocracy (7th BC): 3 constitutional body’s (criterion birth)
• the 9 archons (yearly elected)
• The assembly
• Council of the areopagus (former archons, position for life)
Then, Athens became a meritocracy: Reforms by Solon (6th BC)
• Big problem debt
• Freed economic slaves
• Divided people in for 4 classes
• Creation of council of 400
• Creation of council of appeal -> democratic element
Then, Athens became under the rule of tyrants (546-510BC)
First Peisistratids
• Succeeded by his two sons; Hipparchus and Hippias
• Hipparchus was murdered in 514 BC
• Hippias was driven out with the help of Sparta
The tyrants brought:
• Economic prosperity
• Lost of buildings
• Diminution in the power of aristocracy
After the tyrants, Athens became an ostracism (ultimate control of citizens over
politicians) by the reforms of Cleisthenes.
He redefined the basic intstiutions:
1. Attica divided in 3 regions (coast, city and midland)
• Every region divided into 10 trittyes (every tritty grouped a number of
villages) -> three trittyes, one for every region formed a tribe
2. Council of 500 (servants of the assembly)
• with 50 tribes, one year term, max twice.
3. The head of the legislative branch; the assembly
• Open to every, free, male and adult Athenian citizen -> they had right to vote
• Legislative power (basically everything); vote to approve or disapprove of
treaties, decisions regarding war, assingning general and their resources,
conforming or removing officials from office -> decision after a debate
4. 10 military commanders -> each from one tribe
, • Very influential
• Yearly elected
5. 10 archons (elected by lot)
The reforms of Ephialtes: in 462 BCE Ephialtes, then leader of the pro-democratic faction
made some reforms:
• Stripped away the power of the wealthy people (areopagos) and gave more
to the assembly (the common citizen).
• He made the law court into panels that sats as courts of first instance rather
than hearing appeals of magistrates.
• He was assassinated and in Pericles introduced that you can pay for service
on the council and Juries.
In 410 and 404 Athens was an oligarchy because of the Spartans, second time the Spartans
introduced the thirty tyrants.
Persian wars
Causes:
• Persia began expanding their empire: King Croesus of Lydia (Persian) began
conquering Greek cities in asia minor, King cyrus was after that conquering even
more Greek cities in asia minor, King Cambyses conquers Egypt and Libya, Darius the
great conquered thrace and macedon.
• The Inian revolt: Rebellion of Greek cities against Persian rule, Athens and Eretria
support the revolt, Battle of the Lade: Persian victory
Response and rise of Athens:
• The foundation of the Delian league (477 BC)
- military alliance of Greek polies against the Persians
- naval league
- members paid a contribution and had one vote
• Delian league turns into Athenian empire -> Treasury moved from Delos to Athens
Peloponnesian wars
• Tensions between Spartan and Athenian power blocks and outbursts of violence
• Immediate cause:
- 435 BC: the provocative alliance of Corcyra with Athens against Corcyra’s
mother city Corinth
- 433/432 BC: Potidaea revolts from Athens, supported by volunteers from
mother city Corinth
- Megarian decree, which bans mearians from all ports and markets of the
Athenian empire
- Both decide to declare war.
The course of the Peloponnesian war:
Athenian strategy: from defensive to offensive
, • Revolts of allies
• Internal difficulties; oligarchic revolution in 411/410
• Persian support for Sparta, turning Sparta into a naval power
Outcome:
• Defeat Athenian fleet; battle of Aegospotami in 405
• 404 BC; the surrender of the city Athens
• Hard peace conditions (dissolution of Delian league, destruction of the long walls,
establishment of pro spartan regime in Athens)
• Sparta; new hegemon of Greece
Rise of the roman republic and political organization:
Rome was originally founded by two tribes Latines and Sabines. First tribe like rule but in 9th
century BC Rome transformed into an Aristocracy. The high nobility where the patricians and
the ordinary people the plebeians.
Roman republic political organization:
Three pillars:
1. Magistracy
• Cursus honorum = sequence of public offices in politicians career
• Checks and balances = intercession, one year term, minimal intervals
Struggle of the Orders
• Plebeian tribune was introduced
2. Popular Assemblies (4 of them)
• Legislative power = voted legislative proposals, but need approval of the senate
• Rich minority of voters had majority of votes!
3. Senate
• Most powerful institution, because consisted of former magistrates, position for
life.
Why is Roman republic not a democracy but an aristocracy? Because the rich minority and
aristocrats still held most of the power.
Numerous plebeians had risen to the top of the order because of the plebeian tribune. The
republic became now an oligarchy.
The Punic wars:
The First Punic War
This war started as the Romans moved over the sea and marched on Sicily to gain lands
there. The war ran between 264 BC and 241 BC. The initial battles were on land with the
Battle of Agrigentum being a massive learning curve for the Carthage army as it was routed
by the Romans.
After this the Carthaginian Empire decided to use their Navy, which ruled the seas, as a
means of winning the war. What they didn’t know is that the Romans had built many ships
and armed them with a new invention that was pretty much a pivotal bridge thrown across
ships for legion soldiers to march across and do battle. This new invention was a huge
