Samenvatting
Summary literature and notes lecutres City Matters
- Instelling
- Rijksuniversiteit Groningen (RuG)
A summary of the mandatory literature and notes of the lectures of City Matters
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Week 1 – City MattersAgyeman (2008). Towards a 'just' sustainability?
Inequity and injustice resulting from, among other things, racism and classism are bad for the
environment and bad for a broadly conceived notion of sustainability
A truly sustainable society is one where wider questions of social needs and welfare, and economic
opportunity are integrally related to environmental limits imposed by supporting ecosystems.
the inseparability of environmental quality and human equality
The issue of environmental quality is inextricably linked to that of human equality. countries with
a more equal income distribution, greater civil liberties and political rights and higher literacy levels,
tend to have higher environmental quality.
From global to local, human inequality is bad for environmental quality
If sustainability is to become a process with the power to transform, as opposed to its current
environmental, stewardship or reform, justice and equity issues need to be incorporated in it's very
core
Transformative sustainability or just sustainability implies a paradigm shift that in turn requires that
sustainability takes on a redistributive function. Justice and equity must move centre stage in
sustainability discourses.
Ideas about a just, as opposed to a purely environmental, sustainability
Much theorizing and activity on sustainability and sustainable development is based on
environmental sustainability/environmental stewardship
New environmental paradigm: inter-generational equity: to yet unborn generations. but little about
intra-generational equity: social justice now
Equity deficit of environmental sustainability
Emergence environmental justice organizations: an environmental justice paradigm: framework for
integrating class, race, gender, environment and social justice concerns: a local, grassroots, bottom-
up community reaction to external threats to the health of the community that have been shown to
disproportionately affect people of colour/low-income in neighbourhoods.
- Green/New Environmental Paradigm: environmental sustainability movement: white,
educated, middle class. green agenda: ecological sustainability green agenda
- Brown/Environmental Justice Paradigm: environmental justice movement: low-income,
different colours. brown agenda: environmental health brown agenda
- difference between 2 are based on race and class, justice and equity and how these play out
in terms of services
Middle way: Just Sustainability Paradigm
prioritizes justice and equity, but does not downplay the environment. The needs of the
community as first priority with sustainability principles in mind
Summary
The dominant orientation of most sustainability discourses and practices has been ‘environmental’ or
‘green’, with little or no interest in, or conception of, the role or effect of inequity and injustice,
racism and classism.
The Just Sustainability paradigm foregrounds fore related focal areas of concern that are not all
represented by either the 2 paradigms:
- quality of life
- present and future generations
- justice and equity
- living with ecosystem limits
,Stein (2019). Capital City
H2 – Planning Gentrification
Change in cities: neighbourhood revitalization resulted in physical displacement and social
disruption for the urban working class
Gentrification: the process by which capital is reinvested in urban neighbourhoods, and poorer
residents and their cultural products are displaced and replaced by richer people and their preferred
aesthetics and amenities
Despite different contexts, there are some features that occur again and again:
1. Low rents become high as space-time contracts for wealthier people moving closer to
their jobs, it expands for those pushed to the geographical limits of city areas.
2. The people of color and immigrants who built up neglected neighbourhoods are recast as
outsiders in their won homes and expelled in favour of white newcomers
3. The commercial fabric turns over and replaces itself existing amenities replaced by new
4. Municipal investment follows real estate investment benefits appear as long-term
residents are priced out and have to find homes in other divested communities.
All this change requires the producers gentrification + the consumers of gentrification
Gentrification is a political process as well as an economic and social one; it is planned by the state as
much as it is produced by developers and consumed by the condo crowd. Planners helped foster its
development and transform it from a local phenomenon into global business model
Why gentrification?
Changes in local/(inter)national political economies during 2 nd half of 20th century led investors away
from industrial production deindustrialization + capital economy:
- Low-cost global production and distribution of goods with minimal taxes and tariffs
- Advances in transportation technology and the standardization
Real-estate minded city planners actively pushed industry out with land use changes and
redevelopment projects meant to marginalize manufacturing while driving up land costs
Industry decamped from central cities in search of lower-wages, looser environmental
standards and wide-open spaces
Capital became more mobile (tariffs dropped, internationalization and globalization) and more
grounded (investments in land and buildings filled the literal and figurative space left by urban
industrial flight, at the same time) start of gentrification
Further redlining & urban renewal:
- Redlining: marking poverty made more city space able to be produced and coded for urban
real estate investment and development places of poverty fell down: buyer’s opportunity:
grab low-cost properties and renovate them
- Urban renewal: clear city for CBD
These trends coincided with a severe round of fiscal crises and capital strikes
Thus gentrification presented an alternative way for cities to continue redeveloping
Gentrification was a ‘spatial fix’ for capitalism’s urban crisis: a way to profit from precious disasters
and to find new places for investors to turn money into more money. Deindustrialization created the
space for real estate’s revival, and redlining & urban renewal set the spatial patterns for
disinvestment and reinvestment
,The economics of gentrificaiton
1. Investment in built environment
2. Neighbourhood disinvestment and property abandonment
3. Reinvestment in that same space for greater profits
Real estate speculators look for rent gap: rents and potential future rents
By 21st century, real estate developers and city planners learned how to identify and exploit
opportunities, turning grit into gold. They developed housing, policing, education and design
strategies to identify rent, value and functional gaps, and encouraged speculators to close them.
Landlords and developers identify gaps and act to close them. But it is not just capitalists initiating
the process, but also local state actors who aim to lure investors and developers to particular areas.
The politics of gentrification
With the flight of manufacturing from cities, real estate and finance became the remaining major
urban power bloc and the key to rebuilding local economies real estate is always place based
This economic restructuring forced local governments to seek out new coalitions for securing political
power late 1960s important to be friend of real estate
- Early gentrification was a boon to politicians who were both hamstrung by shrinking
municipal budgets and unwilling to take on serious problems of entrenched poverty and
structural racism early gentrification = middle class: newcomers asserted their power
steered the work of local governance and planning bodies
- 1970s: promote gentrification as spatial fix for capital and political fix for planners to scale
up gentrification
Planners for Gentrification
Local property tax cuts are one of the main incentives cities use to lure and retain real estate
investment renovation and construction. critics: geobribery:
- The way planners use public finances to lure private investment into specific areas:
developers win twice: paying lower fees and getting improved public services
- Planners have taken steps to surrender public ownership of land and buildings
privatization of housing + demolishing much chipping away at rent controls
Land giveaways + deregulation
Planners have used zoning to facilitate gentrification cities responsible for solving own housing
crisis but governments restricts abilities to build public housing + restrict them from rent control
Zoning changes the economic calculus of present vs. future land uses. Any zoning will likely alter
conditions such that landlords/developer income rise, and public benefits shrink
- Planners channel new services toward neighbourhoods that are already gentrified
- Planners invest in currently gentrifying areas in order to speed along the process
- Planners focus attention on areas that are not yet undergoing gentrification in order to
attract real estate capital
Gentrification is what happens when real estate rules and planners follow.
, Justifying gentrification
The next narratives represent some of the post potent ways planners legitimate displacement. They
help reframe dispossession as development and popularize the notion that gentrification is
something to be desires. According to these theories, gentrification is the outcome of good city
planning
- Highest and best use: land use planning as real estate appraisal, the best use for any piece of
land is that which derives the greatest value at the lowest cost and allows buildings to
actualize their full potential rent: more money will come in and be used for social good; NOT
- Value recapture: using tools that reclaim some social benefit from publicly generated private
profits. But 3 major flaws:
o 1: it assumes that planners must always give away value if they ever hope to win
anything for the public
o 2: it engages a sort of magical thinking whereby it is the landlords who actually pay
these costs
o 3: it fails to account for the effects of increased property values in a private land
market – gentrification.
- Competitive advantage of the inner city: remove regulations from working class districts.
Working class neighbourhoods are underexploited markets that represent major
opportunities for national retailers. Planning policies that clear the way for big box stores and
large chain operations
- Creative class: attract and retain artists and idea creators. Yuppies and cities should promote
arts-based gentrification as means to attract both. Using lifestyle amenities and place-making
strategies to attract capital (creative and common kind)
- Liveability: idea that cities should be human scaled, environmentally sustainable and just
plain nice jane Jacobs
- Neighbourhoods effects thesis: the idea that social outcomes are highly influenced by
environmental factors. Poor people less likely to move because they enjoy benefits\
Coercing compliance
Beyond self-justification, planners are compelled by external forces to reshape their cities for
investment. Politicians and planners who try to challenge historical bloc of capital have sheer power
and control and those who persist are often punished.
By choice or by force, planners use gentrification to create the physical environments for capital to
thrive. It is the process by which cities seek capital, and capital seeks land. Its endgame is a city
controlled by bankers and developers, run like a corporation, designed as a luxury product and
planned by the finance sectors.
Through the real estate, the city becomes gentrified and thus the city becomes neoliberal.
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