Detailed yet concise English summary for the course 1.8 Human Learning. Contains information about all problems, including tutorial discussions and visuals.
Memory: Saving & locating acquired information for a period of time (e.g. in working/long-term memory).
Storage: Putting new information in memory.
Encoding: Modifying (changing form, simplifying) information in some way when storing it.
Helps store info more easily.
Retrieval: Finding previously stored information.
DUAL-STORE MODEL OF MEMORY
(Working & Long-Term Memory are distinctly different entities)
3 Components of Dual-Store Model of Memory
Sensory Register
Holds incoming information long enough to undergo preliminary cognitive processing.
Capacity: Very large, e.g. even a 6-month-old record what they see.
Forms of Storage: Visual input stored in visual form & auditory input stored in auditory form.
o Info isn’t interpreted yet at this point – sensory register holds info before encoding occurs.
Duration: Info remains only for a brief time (measuring exact time is difficult).
o Visual stimulus remains less than 1 second – longer if no new visual input arrives.
o Auditory info lasts at least for 2 seconds & or longer.
Louder stimuli last longer than quiet stimuli.
o Evolution: Given people greater capacity to retain uninterpreted sequential auditory input.
o Interference: New incoming info effectively replaces & erases previous info.
Attention
Must pay attention when moving info from sensory register into working memory.
Not-attended info is lost from memory system.
Attention involves automatic responses, conscious control, learning.
Some stimuli draw more attention than others:
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, o Motion: Moving objects more than stationery ones.
o Size: Larger objects more than smaller ones.
o Intensity: More intense stimuli more, e.g. bright colors, loud noises.
o Novelty: Novel/unusual stimuli more.
o Incongruity: Objects that don’t make sense within their context more.
o Social Cues: Things people see others looking at & reacting to more.
o Emotion: Stimuli with strong emotional associations more.
o Personal Significance: Meaning & relevance people find in an object/event.
Nature of Attention: Can focus attention on at least 1 sensory modality (usually hearing) without
physically orienting in a particular direction.
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o Filter: Use physical characteristics to select one message & screen out others.
o Cocktail Party Phenomenon: Ability to attend to 1 spoken message while ignoring others.
o Shadowing Technique: Listening to 2 simultaneously spoken messages & asked to repeat 1.
Easier when speakers have very different voices, talk about different topics, present
messages in different directions.
Attention’s Limited Capacity: Not capable of attending to everything at once.
o Figure Ground: When focusing on details of one object, can’t inspect other objects in sight
(things become background for the objects).
Shifting attention from one item to another is the only way to gain detailed
information about two or more items.
o Limited Processing Capacity: Number of attended stimuli depends on how much cognitive
processing is required for each one.
When engaging in a difficult task – devote full attention.
Working/Short-Term Memory
Holds info for a brief time after it’s attended so that it can be mentally processed.
Active thinking occurs in working memory: identifies info in sensory register that attention is given,
saves it for a longer period of time, processes it further.
Also holds & processes info that it receives from long-term memory to help interpret new info.
Central Executive Component: Controls & monitors flow and use of info memory system.
o Gets increasingly sophisticated & effective as brain matures.
o Effortful Control: Affect ability to inhibit impulsive behaviors & resist distractions & keep
attention on task.
Higher levels of effortful control = higher achievers
Capacity: Very limited - 72 units of info at a time (5-9)
o Chunking: Combining pieces of info in some way.
Increases amount of info of working memory’s limited capacity.
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, Forms of Storage: Most info is encoded in auditory form (especially when language based) & also in
other forms (e.g. visual, spatial, tactile, psychomotor forms).
o Working memory includes distinct storage mechanisms specialized in different sensory
modalities:
Phonological Loop: Keep auditory info fresh through constant repetition.
Visuospatial Sketchpad: Manipulation & short-term retention of visual material.
Episodic Buffer: Place where info from multiple input modalities and long-term
memory interact & be integrated into an overall understanding of a particular
situation.
Duration: Less than 30 seconds & maybe even shorter.
o Decay & interference explains working memory’s short time span.
o Decay: Some stored info may fade away if not processed further.
o Interference: Info may be replaced by new input.
Control Processes: Center for important processes, e.g. learning, thinking, behavior.
o Organization: Increase working memory’s capacity by organizing & putting multiple info into
an integrated unit.
o Retrieval. Easy & automatic process.
How quickly & easily info is retrieved depends on how much info is stored there.
Process of scanning all of working-memory’s content until finding desired info.
o Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating info to keep it alive, often in form of subvocal speech.
Saves info from decay & interference
Info disappears quickly when not possible.
It’s a learned skill – observed more in older children/adults than younger ones.
Word Length Effect: Remember greater amount of shorter words than longer ones.
Moving Information to Long-Term Memory: Connecting New Info with Prior Knowledge
Further processing necessary to move info from working memory to long-term memory.
Combine new info with previous info in long-term memory.
o More successful storage when combined with existing knowledge.
Long-term memory storage occurs slowly & most info is lost in process.
Long-Term Memory
Declarative Knowledge: Knowledge of how things are, were, will be.
o Explicit.
Procedural Knowledge: Knowledge of how to do things.
o Implicit.
Capacity: Unlimited.
o The more info that’s stored, the easier it’s to store new info.
Forms of Storage: Encoding through language, sensory images, nonverbal abstractions/meanings.
o Rarely save info in the same way encountered in the environment.
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, o Explicit Knowledge: Easily recall & explain.
Episodic: Sequence.
Somatic: Meaning.
o Implicit Knowledge: Affect behavior even though can’t consciously be retrieved & inspected.
Most of the knowledge in long-term memory.
o Interconnectedness: Related pieces tend to be associated together.
Duration: For a very long time (exact duration not known).
o All stored info doesn’t remain permanently.
Challenges to Dual-Store Model
Sensory register & working memory may be overlapping.
Working & long-term memory are different aspects of a single (rather than dual) storage mechanism.
Are Working Memory & Long-Term Memory Really Different?
Investigated through primacy & recency effect.
Recency Effect – Reflects use of working memory separate from long-term memory.
Primacy Effect – May be because that last items haven’t yet undergone rapid decay.
Brain Injuries & Neurosurgical Procedures: Anterograde amnesia (remembering past but not making
new memories) reflect 2 different processes (working & long-term memory) that depend on different
brain parts.
Is Conscious Thought Necessary for Long-Term Memory Storage?
Some info can automatically be stored even if not specifically selected for further processing
(unconsciously).
Unconsciously processed info becomes implicit (rather than explicit) knowledge.
Better able to solve complex problems when remains outside of working memory’s limited capacity.
Alternative Views of Human Memory
Levels of Processing Model
Incoming info is processed by central processor at any different level of complexity.
Central processor has limited capacity.
o Info that’s temporarily held in central processor is what the person is aware of at any time.
How well & long info is remembered depends on how thoroughly central processor deals with it.
o Non-processed info leaves.
o Experiment: Students asked to remember common object pairs.
Processed info in 5 ways: labels, sentence generation, sentence repetition, ‘what’
questions, ‘why’ questions.
Learned most effectively when required to think about relationship.
Question answering – led to greatest recall.
Labeling & sentence generation – least effective.
Intention to Learn: More likely to learn & remember if have intention to learn.
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