SUMMARY ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT EXAM 1
INTRODUCTION
THE BOUNDARIES OF ADOLESCENCE
In all societies, adolescence is the stage of development that begins with puberty and ends when individuals
make the transition into adult roles, roughly speaking from about 10 until the early 20s.
Adolescence is a period of transitions: biological, cognitive, social. For instance, a biologist would place a great
deal of emphasis on the attainment and completion of puberty where as an attorney would look instead at
important age breaks designated by law.
Determining the beginning and ending of adolescence is also more a matter of opinion than of absolute fact.
Rather than argue about which boundaries are the correct ones, it makes more sense to think of development
during adolescence as involving a series of transitions from immaturity into maturity.
Early, Middle and Late Adolescence
Social scientists study adolescence differentiate among early adolescence (about ages 10-13), middle
adolescence (about ages 14-17), and late adolescence (about ages 18-21). Some writers also have suggested
that a new phase of life, called emerging adulthood characterizes 18-25 and young adulthood (about ages 22-
30). However, despite the popularity of this idea, there is little evidence that emerging adulthood is a universal
stage or that the majority of young people in their mid-20s are in a psychological or social limbo.
A FRAMEWORK FOR STUDYING ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
This book uses a framework for studying adolescence that is based on a model originally suggested by John
Hill. This model has three basic components: (1) the fundamental changes of adolescence, (2) the contexts of
adolescence, and (3) the psychosocial developments of adolescence.
1.The Fundamental Changes of Adolescence
According to Hill, three features of adolescent development appears during the period (primary changes): (1)
the onset of puberty (biological), (2) the emergence of more advanced thinking abilities (cognitive), and (3)
the transition into new roles in society (social).
, Biological transitions The elements of biological changes of adolescence – which collectively are
referred to as puberty – involve changes in the physical appearance (breast development in girls,
growth of facial hair in boys), and the development of the ability to conceive children.
Cognitive transitions This refers to the processes that underlie how people think. Compared with
children, adolescents are much better able to think about hypothetical situations and abstract
concepts.
Social transitions All societies distinguish between individuals who are viewed as children and
those who are seen as ready to become adults. For example; distinguishes between people who are
‘’underage’’ or minors, and people who have reached the age of majority. Such as being permitted to
drive, marry, and vote. In some cultures, the social changes of adolescence are marked by a formal
ceremony, a rite of passage.
Secondary changes are the psychological consequences of the interaction between the primary changes and
the setting organised into domains of intimacy, autonomy etc.
2.The Contexts of Adolescence
Although all adolescents experience the biological, cognitive, and social transitions of the period, the effects of
these changes are not uniform for all young people. Puberty makes some adolescents feel attractive, but it
makes others feel ugly.
The fundamental changes of adolescence are universal, but their effects are so varied. This is because the
psychological impact of the biological, cognitive, and social changes of adolescence is shaped by the
environment in which the changes take place. A child could be raised differently by their parents and this
could have effects for the future. For this reason, the second component of the framework is the context of
adolescence.
According to the biological perspective on human development (Bronfenbrenner), we cannot understand
development without examining the environment in which it occurs. In modern societies, there are four main
contexts in which young people spend time; families, peer groups, schools, and work and leisure settings.
Families Adolescence is a time of dramatic change in family relationships. Also, there is a diversity
in family forms, and household compositions in modern society. This could affect young people’s
psychological development.
Peer groups A peer group has an important role in the socialisation and development of teenagers.
Schools Contemporary societies depends on schools to occupy, socialise, and educate adolescents.
Work, leisure, and mass media Some of the most important influences on adolescent development
are found in part-time jobs, extracurricular activities, and the mass media (internet).
3.Psychosocial Development in Adolescence
The third, and final, component of the framework concerns the psychosocial developments of adolescence;
identity, autonomy, intimacy, sexuality and achievement as well as certain psychosocial problems that may
arise in adolescence.
Social scientists use the word psychosocial to describe aspects of development that are both psychological
and social in nature. For instance, sexuality.
Psychosocial issues are present throughout the life span, from infancy through late adulthood. During the
adolescence each of these areas takes a special turn. They represent basic developmental challenges that we
face as we grow and change:
identity discovering and understanding who we are as individuals
autonomy establishing a healthy sense of independence
, intimacy forming close and caring relationships with other people
sexuality expressing sexual feelings and enjoying physical contact with others
achievement being successful and competent members of society.
Although most adolescents move through the period without experiencing major psychological upheaval, this
stage of life is the most common time for the first appearance of serious psychological difficulties. Three sets
of problems are often associated with adolescence; drug and alcohol use and abuse.
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON ADOLESCENCE
Biosocial theories
The most important biosocial theorist was Stanley Hall.
Hall’s Theory of Recapitulation
Hall was influenced by Darwin (theory of evolution) and believed that development of the individual paralleled
the development of the human species, referred to as his theory of recapitulation. Adolescence, in contrast,
was seen as a time that paralleled the evolution of our species into civilisation. According to Hall, the
development through these stages was determined primarily by instinct (biological and genetic forces within
the person), and hardly influenced by the environment.
He believed in a period of storm and stress for everyone. He believed that the hormonal changes of puberty
cause upheaval, both for the individual and for those around him or her. Because this turbulence is
biologically determined, it is unavoidable. The best the society can do is to find ways of managing the young
person whose ‘’raging hormones’’ invariably cause difficulties.
Dual Systems Theories
These theories are about the simultaneous development of two different brain systems – on that governs the
way in which the brain processes rewards, punishments and social and emotional information, and another
that regulates self-control and advanced thinking abilities (planning, logical reasoning). The arousal of this
first system takes place early in adolescence, while the second system is still maturing. This creates an
imbalance. The main challenge of adolescence, according to this view, is to develop better self-regulation, so
that this imbalance doesn’t result in problems.
Organismic Theories
Like the biosocial theorist, organismic theorists recognise the importance of the biological changes of
adolescence. But unlike their biosocial counterparts, organismic theories also take into account the ways in
which contextual forces interact with and modify these biological forces.
Three theorists have had a great influence on the study of adolescence; Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, and Jean
Piaget.
Freudian Theory
For Freud, development was best understood in terms of the psychosexual conflicts that arise at different
points in development. Like Hall, Feud saw adolescence as a time of upheaval. According to Freud, puberty
, temporarily throws the adolescent into a period of psychological crisis (old conflicts over uncomfortable
sexual urges that are in the unconscious).
Anna Freud; storm and stress is normal, if youngsters don’t go through that face, they are likely to have more
problems.
Eriksonian Theory
Erikson’s work was built on Freud and also believed that internal, biological developments moved the
individual from one developmental stage to the next. But Erikson stressed the psychosocial, rather than the
psychosexual, conflicts faced by the individual at each point in time.
In Erikson’s theory development in adolescence revolves around the identity crisis. According to Erikson, the
challenge of adolescence is to resolve the identity crisis and to emerge with a coherent sense of who one is
and where one is headed.
Piagetian Theory
For Piaget, development could best be understood by examining changes in the nature of thinking. She
believed that, as children mature, they pass through distinct stages of cognitive development. Adolescence
marks the transition from concrete to abstract thought. For instance, they become capable of thinking in
hypothetical terms.
Learning Theories
Learning theorists talk about the context in which behaviour takes place. What is of interest to learning
theorists is the content of what is learned. For learning theorists, the basic processes of human behaviour are
the same during adolescence as during other periods of the life span.
Behaviourism
Behaviourists emphasises the processes of reinforcement and punishment as the main influences on
adolescent behaviour. Skinner was an important theorist in this perspective (operant conditioning).
Reinforcement is the process through which a behaviour is made more likely to occur again, whereas
punishment is the process through which a behaviour is made less likely to occur again.
So, from this point of view, adolescent behaviour is nothing more or less than the product of various
reinforcements and punishments to which the individual has been exposed.
Social Learning Theory
Social learning theorists also emphasise the ways in which adolescents learn how to behave, but in contrast to
behaviourists, they place more weight on the processes of modelling and observational learning (Bandura).
According to these theorists, adolescents learn how to behave not simply by being reinforced and punished
by forces in the environment, but also by watching and imitating those around them.
Sociological Theories
Sociological theories of adolescence attempt to understand how adolescents, as a group, come of age in
society.
Adolescent Marginality
Adolescent marginality emphasises the difference in power that exists between the adult and the adolescent
generations (Lewin and Friedenberg). According to these theorists, many adolescents are prohibited from
occupying meaningful roles in society and therefore experience frustration and restlessness.
Intergenerational Conflict
These theorists are talking about the fact that adolescents and adults grow up under different sets of
