SUMMARY CHANGE MANAGEMENT
BOOK: ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT, AN INTERNATIONAL
APPROACH
CHAPTER 2 – 7-S MODEL
7-S MODEL
STRUCTURE The way elements within the organization
relate to each other
SYSTEMS Information and communication systems,
formal and informal, within the organization
MANAGERIAL The characteristic behavioral patterns of the
STYLE top managers of the enterprise. Big influence
on the culture of an organization
STAFF Focusses on the way an organization pays
attention to its human resources
KEY SKILLS The outstanding capabilities of individuals or
the whole organization; those by which the
organization can distinguish itself from its
competitors
STRATEGIES Are laid down in the plan that shows what
the organization needs to do in order to
reach its goals
SHARED The vision
VALUES
CHAPTER 12 – CULTURE
12.1 INTRODUCTION
HOFSTEDE & HOFSTEDE’S CULTURAL OPINION
Hofstede & Hofstede describe culture as the collective mental programming that
distinguishes one group of people from another. The fact that H&H identify differences
between groups in different organizations is due to the fact notions and ideas about work,
others, the self, and the organization differ from one organization to the next. H&H’s
cultural onions is that a culture is comprised of a number of interrelated layers. Differences
between culture can therefore occur in each of the layers as well as because of interaction
between the layers. By defining the layers of the onion, it becomes possible to obtain a
better insight into the concept of culture. The four layers, working inwards from the outer
layer:
SYMBOLS. This is the most superficial layer of the onion model.
SPACE. The way in which space is put to use serves as an insight into the type of
organization and work processes concerned. Symbolic aspects of space include:
a. Architecture and environment (location)
b. Interior
TIME. The way in which an organization arranges time says much about the meaning
of the function and nature of the work. Symbolic aspects of time include:
a. Clear division between work/non-work or continuous service
b. The flexibility of the timetable
c. The starting hours
A person’s perception of time is SEQUENTIAL if time governs their life
,A SYNCHRONOUS PERCEPTION OF TIME sees time as a more relative concept, flexible
LANGUAGE. The way people use language shows the symbolism they bestow and
impart. Symbolic aspects of language include:
a. Influence
b. identity
HEROES. Usually, people who are of have been in high standing in the organization.
RITUALS. An organization’s collective activities. Rituals are essentially superfluous but are
very important to the organization and its culture form a social perspective. Rituals are
performed because they simply have to be.
VALUES. Values are the deepest layer of a culture and are invisible. Values are the notions in
an organization that lead to a particular code of conduct, one that is important to an
organization when making decisions. Their function in a culture is the most important.
The existence of a particular culture can have positive effects for an organization. They are
related to the following four aspects:
a. COMMITMENT. A clear and powerful culture helps to create commitment among
the employees in an organization.
b. STANDARDIZATION. Shared norms and values help to create a situation of
improved, more efficient collaboration.
c. INTERNAL SECURITY. Employees know where they stand with each other and know
how to respond to particular issues.
d. EXTERNAL FORCE. Employees who are proud to be part of an organization exude this
pride to their contacts outside the organization as well.
The characteristics of a strong culture are that:
a. Values enjoy broad support
b. Culture expresses a consistent message regarding what is important
c. Most employees can relate stories about company heroes and history
d. Employees strongly identify with the culture
e. There is a strong relationship between shared values and behavior
Different levels of culture:
1. NATIONAL CULTURE. The culture of a country or region.
2. BUSINESS OR INDUSTRY CULTURE. The culture of a certain industry or profession
3. CORPORATE CULTURE. The organizational culture
4. INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR. The behavior exhibited by a person themselves.
MCCLELLAND’S ICEBERG MODEL
Most of behavior is unseen and even
unconscious. Above the water it is about what a
person does, below the water it is about what a
person thinks and wants.
CONVICTIONS. Can be described as people’s
notions about situations, developments, other
people and themselves. Convictions are the result
of one’s education.
NORMS AND VALUES. Govern people’s responses
to questions of what is right and what is wrong.
They have a strong influence on a person’s
convictions and therefore on behavior.
,PROPERTIES. Are a person’s competences and personal characteristics. The introverted
individual firsts take the measure of a person or situation they are confronted with for the
first time, the extroverted individual will dive in headfirst.
MOTIVES. Are the driving force behind action or inaction. Driving forces direct human
behavior.
12.2 TYPOLOGIES OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
12.2.1 GROUP PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE APPROACH
This approach looks at the behavior of individual group members from the ORIENTATION
OF THE GROUP. Individuals’ actions are influenced mainly by the processes in these groups.
The description of a group process is based on the following six aspects
1. AFFECTIVITY.
2. CAUSALITY.
3. HIERARCHY.
4. CHANGE.
5. COLLABORATION.
6. ORIENTATION WITH RESPECT TO GROUPS WITH OTHER INTERESTS.
A group’s culture covers the direction in which people move in any given situation.
12.2.2 HARRISON AND HANDY’S TYPOLOGY
This typology describes four ideal types. The typology is based on two dimensions:
1. DEGREE OF COOPERATION. The extent to which collaboration between employees is
possible and occurs
2. DISTRIBUTION OF POWER. The extent to which decision-making authority is
centralized or decentralized.
Combining these two dimensions leads to:
Power distribution
Low High
Degree of Low Role culture Person culture
cooperation High Power culture Task culture
The four types of culture are the following:
1. ROLE CULTURE. An organization based on rule and procedure offering stability and
security. Organizational functions set the tone. You focus on what/function. E.g.,
government.
2. POWER CULTURE. An organization that revolves around the top-level figure,
functioning as their extension. The top-level individual chooses a circle of loyal
employees based on recognition. This cultural type uses few rules and procedures,
with decisions made on an ad-hoc basis. You focus on who/person. E.g., consultancy.
3. PERSON CULTURE. Characterized by the emphasis it places on the individual, this
organization operates in the service of its people. A manager in this type of
organization is equal to any employee. You focus on your leader. E.g., mafia.
4. TASK CULTURE. Characterized by task-oriented and professionalism, this
organization comprises a network of loose/fixed task units. Each unit has a higher
degree of autonomy and carrier a specific responsibility as part of the whole. You
focus on results/outcome. E.g., NASA.
, 12.2.5 SCHEIN’S THREE-LAYER MODEL
Schein described culture as the
fundamental, unspoken suppositions
about how the world is and ought to be,
shared by a group of people and
determining their perceptions, thoughts,
feelings, and outward behaviors. His
model attempts to define two aspects of
culture: how is organizational culture
constructed and how can an organization
achieve cultural change. Each layer
represents a level of organizational
culture.
1. ARTEFACTS AND SYMBOLS. The easiest cultural level to adapt and change, artefacts
and symbols are the visible elements. Artefacts and symbols influence organizational
culture indirectly.
2. ESPOUSED VALUES. Form the organization’s established strategies, objectives and
managerial theories, as well as norms, values and codes of conduct. The espoused
values are conveyed throughout the organization and are well-known to all. The
espoused values also influence organizational culture indirectly.
3. ASSUMPTIONS. Notions consisting of conscious and unconscious ideas, perceptions,
thoughts and feelings. These are shared by all organizational members and form the
heart of the culture. To a large extent, these types of rules and basic assumptions
determine manners and etiquette inside and outside of the organization. These basic
suppositions influence organizational culture directly but are very hard to change or
adjust.
In order to change organization culture, the basic assumptions must be changes or adjusted.
Implementing cultural change is only possible if the basic assumptions are clearly defined.
CHAPTER 13 – ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT
13.2 NINE GLOBAL TRENDS OF ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCE
VUCA = Volatile, Uncertain, Complex and Ambiguous.
A study by McKinsey defines three encompassing themes describing nine global trends that
influence the organizational playing field.
GROWTH SHIFTS: the first theme it that of growth shifts on a global scale. This umbrella
theme contains three different trends:
1. The world has moved past traditional globalization.
2. From BRIC to ICASA, the power of the enormous market.
3. Resources what is the limit?
INCREASING DISRUPTION: the second theme addresses increasing industrial disruption.
Disruption refers to the fact that many industries are experiencing shifts leading to changes
that result in a complete overhaul.
1. The synergetic effects of technologies are explosive.
2. The consumer is king.
3. Ecosystem revolution.
