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Group Dynamics - Summary
This is a comprehensive summary of both the relevant book chapters and the lectures of the course Group Dynamics. The course is part of the Social Psychology major/ minor.
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1Group Dynamics
Content
1. Introduction to Group Dynamics ..................................................................................................... 3
What Are Groups? ............................................................................................................................... 3
What Are Group Dynamics? ................................................................................................................ 7
Why Study Groups? ............................................................................................................................. 8
2. Studying Groups .............................................................................................................................. 8
The Scientific Study of Groups ............................................................................................................ 8
Measurement ...................................................................................................................................... 9
Research Methods in Group Dynamics ............................................................................................. 10
Theoretical Perspectives ................................................................................................................... 11
3. Inclusion and Identity .................................................................................................................... 12
From Isolation to Inclusion ................................................................................................................ 13
From Individualism to Collectivism ................................................................................................... 15
From Personal Identity to Social Identity .......................................................................................... 17
What Can We Do About Ostracism? ................................................................................................. 18
4. Formation ...................................................................................................................................... 18
Joining Groups ................................................................................................................................... 18
Affiliation ........................................................................................................................................... 21
Attraction .......................................................................................................................................... 23
5. Cohesion and Development .......................................................................................................... 25
Sources of Cohesion .......................................................................................................................... 25
Developing Cohesion ......................................................................................................................... 26
Consequences of Cohesion ............................................................................................................... 27
Application: Explaining Initiations ..................................................................................................... 29
6. Motivation ..................................................................................................................................... 29
Social Facilitation ............................................................................................................................... 29
Social Loafing ..................................................................................................................................... 33
Working in Groups............................................................................................................................. 34
Group Creativity ................................................................................................................................ 38
7. Influence ........................................................................................................................................ 39
Majority Influence: The Power of the Many ..................................................................................... 39
Minority Influence: The Power of the Few........................................................................................ 44
Sources of Group Influence ............................................................................................................... 45
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Six Weapons of Influence .................................................................................................................. 48
8. Leadership ..................................................................................................................................... 48
Leading Groups .................................................................................................................................. 49
Leadership Emergence ...................................................................................................................... 50
Intellectual and Practical Skills .......................................................................................................... 51
Theories of Leadership Emergence ................................................................................................... 52
Leader Effectiveness.......................................................................................................................... 55
9. Conflict........................................................................................................................................... 61
The Roots of Conflict ......................................................................................................................... 61
Confrontation and Escalation ............................................................................................................ 64
Conflict Resolution ............................................................................................................................ 66
Example: Conflict Due to Political Divide .......................................................................................... 69
10. Decision Making ........................................................................................................................ 69
The Decision-Making Process ............................................................................................................ 69
Decisional Biases ............................................................................................................................... 72
Victims of Groupthink ....................................................................................................................... 74
11. Intergroup Relations .................................................................................................................. 77
Intergroup Conflict: Us versus Them ................................................................................................. 78
Intergroup Bias: Perceiving Us and Them ......................................................................................... 80
Intergroup Conflict Resolution: Uniting Us and Them ...................................................................... 83
12. Stigma and Inequality ................................................................................................................ 85
What is Stigma? ................................................................................................................................. 86
Why Do People Stigmatize? .............................................................................................................. 87
How Does Stigma Produce Inequality? ............................................................................................. 87
13. Close Relationships .................................................................................................................... 89
Characterizing Relationships ............................................................................................................. 89
Attraction .......................................................................................................................................... 90
Romantic Relationships ..................................................................................................................... 92
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1. Introduction to Group Dynamics
Groups are and always have been essential to human life. Since we spend our entire lives getting
into, getting out of, and taking part in groups, it is best to understand them.
What Are Groups?
Defining Groups
A group is defined as two or more individuals who are connected by and within social relationships.
Even though social networks and groups share many similarities, they are distinct because the
former lack clear boundaries that define who is in the network and who is not. To become part of a
social network, an individual only needs to establish a relationship of some sort with a person who is
already part of the network.
Varieties of Groups
There are four types of groups. Primary groups are small, long-term groups characterized by
frequent interaction, solidarity, and high levels of interdependence among members that
substantially influences their attitudes, values, and social outcomes of its members. They continue
for a very long time and transform individuals into social beings by creating the connection between
the individual and society at large.
When we began to associate with a wider range of people in less intimate, more public settings,
social (secondary) groups emerged to structure these interactions. Social groups are larger and more
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formally organized than primary groups, and memberships tend to be shorter in duration and less
emotionally involving. People can easily leave and join social groups and enjoy membership in a
variety of them.
Collectives are relatively large groups of individuals who display similarities in actions and outlook.
They come into existence when people are drawn together by an event but end when this
experience ends. They usually describe larger, less intricately interconnected associations among
people, such as audiences standing in a movie theater queue, gatherings of people protesting, or
panicked mobs fleeing from danger.
A social category is a perceptual grouping of people who are assumed to be similar to one another in
some ways but different in other ways. Members of the same social category often share a common
identity and know who is in their category, who is not, and what qualities are typical of in- and
outsiders. Social categories can influence the perceptions of people who are not part of the category
and can lead to an ingroup-outgroup bias and stereotyping.
The social identity is an individual’s sense of self, derived from relationships and memberships in
groups together with the emotional significance attached to that membership.
Characteristics of Groups
The composition of a group encompasses the different qualities of its members. Even though groups
may be more than the sum of their parts, each part defines the whole: The group’s composition
differentiates it from other groups.
Groups also have (psychological) boundaries: Those who are included in the group are recognized as
members and those who are not part of the group are excluded outsiders. These boundaries can be
known by only the group’s members or by the public.
In an open group membership is relatively fluid, while members change more slowly in closed
groups. Because competition for membership is irrelevant in closed groups, they tend to be more
cohesive and future collaborations are expected. Thus, members of closed groups are more likely to
focus on its collective nature and to identify with it.
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A group’s size influences many of its other features because a
small group usually has different structures, processes, and Maximum number of ties within in
patterns of interaction than a larger one. It also determines a group in which everyone is
how many social ties are needed to join members to each other linked:
and to the group. Once the group surpasses about 150 n(n – 1)/2
individuals, members usually cannot connect with each and
every member of the group. Thus, in larger groups, members n = number of group members
tend to be connected indirectly and subgroups form more
easily.
There are two main types of group interactions: Task interaction includes all group behavior that is
focused on the group’s work, projects, plans, and goals, while relationship (= socioemotional)
interaction serves to sustain, strengthen, or weaken interpersonal relationships within the group.
Within groups, there is a certain degree of interdependence:
The members’ outcomes, actions, thoughts, feelings and
experiences are partially determined by others in the group.
Depending on the kind of group and how its members are
related, there are different types of interdependence, such as
symmetric interdependence with reciprocity or – more
commonly – asymmetric, unequal, and hierarchical
interdependencies.
The group structure describes the organization of a group,
including the members, their interrelations, and their
interactions, as well as the group’s roles and norms. A role is
a socially shared set of behaviors, characteristics, and responsibilities expected of people who occupy
a position within a group, while norms are consensual and often implicit standards that describe
what behaviors should and should not be performed in a given context. Roles, norms, and other
structural aspects of groups lie at the heart of their most dynamic processes.
Humans seem to be genetically ready to set goals for themselves. Even though group members
pursue their own goals, these goals are interdependent and thus groups promote the pursuit of
other members’ goals and group-level goals.
The circumplex model of group tasks proposed by McGrath distinguishes among four basic group
goals, which can be further subdivided into a total of eight goal-related activities:
Generating Type 1 – Planning tasks: Groups concoct the
strategies they will use to accomplish their
goals
Type 2 – Creativity tasks: Groups create
altogether new ideas and approaches to their
problems
Choosing Type 3 – Intellective tasks: Groups make
decisions about issues that have correct
solutions
Type 4 – Decision-making tasks: Groups make
decisions about questions that can be answered
in many ways
Negotiating Type 5 – Cognitive conflict tasks: Groups
resolve differences of opinion among members
regarding their goals or decisions
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Type 6 – Mixed-motive tasks: Groups settle
competitive disputes among members
Executing Type 7 – Contests/battles/ competitive tasks:
Groups take part in competitions
Type 8 – Performances/ psychomotor tasks:
Groups create some product or carry out
collective actions
The model also distinguishes between conceptual-
behavioral tasks and cooperation-conflict tasks.
Groups dealing with conceptual tasks (Types 2-5)
generally exhibit high levels of information
exchange, social influence, and process-oriented
activity. Groups dealing with behavioral tasks
(Types 1, and 6-8) are those that produce things or
perform services. Conflict tasks (Types 4-7) pit
individuals and groups against each other, whereas
cooperation tasks (Types 1-3, and 8) require
collaboration.
Some groups perform tasks from nearly all of
McGrath’s categories, while others concentrate on
only one subset of goals.
Furthermore, groups tend to naturally fall into two categories. Planned groups are deliberately
formed by its members or an external authority for some purpose and tend to be organized, task-
focused, and formal. They define their membership criteria clearly. Despite their overall level of
organization and definition, they may lack warmth and emotional depth.
Emergent groups come into existence spontaneously when individuals join together in the same
physical location or gradually over time. Even though there are not explicitly organized, they often
develop elements of structure as members determine what kinds of behaviors are expected of
members, who is more or less liked, who leads and who follows, and so on. Emergent groups often
have unclear boundaries and membership is sought as a means in and of itself, and not to gain some
other goal.
This distinction can be further subdivided:
Planned groups Concocted groups are planned by individuals or
authorities outside of the group.
Founded groups are planned by one or more
individuals who remain within the group.
Emergent groups Circumstantial groups arise when external,
situational forces set the stage for people to
join together, often temporarily, in a unified
group.
Self-organizing groups emerge when
interacting individuals gradually align their
activities in a cooperative system of
interdependence.
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Group cohesion is the solidarity or unity of a group resulting from the development of strong and
mutual interpersonal bonds among members and group-level forces that unify the group. All groups
require a degree of cohesiveness or else the group would disintegrate and cease to exist. Close-knit,
cohesive groups suffer little from intragroup conflict and hold on to their members tightly. Generally,
a group’s cohesiveness is based on commitment to the group’s purposes, rather than on social bonds
between members.
Entitativity describes the extent to which a group seems to be a single, unified entity – it is the
“groupiness” of a group, perceived rather than actual group unity or cohesion. It is substantially
influenced by similarity, proximity, and common fate, as well as perceptual cues such as good form
and permeability.
The Thomas Theorem states that if men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.
Applied to groups, this predicts that if people define groups as real, then it will have real and
important interpersonal consequences for its members and observers.
What Are Group Dynamics?
Dynamic Group Processes
Group dynamics are the influential interpersonal processes that occur in and between groups over
time. These processes not only determine how members relate to and engage with one another, but
they also determine the group’s inherent nature and trajectory.
There are five types of processes that are of central importance:
1. Formative processes
2. Influence processes
3. Performance processes
4. Conflict processes
5. Contextual processes
Process and Progress Over Time
Nearly every theorist has also speculated about regularities in the way groups change over time. In
most groups, the same sorts of issues arise over time, and once resolved new processes are initiated
that further change the nature of the group and its members.
Tuckman identified five process stages in his theory of group
development, through some of which groups also tend to cycle
repeatedly:
1. Orientation (forming) stage: Group members become oriented
toward one another
2. Conflict (storming) stage: Conflicts surface in the group as members
vie for status and the group sets its goals
3. Structure (norming) stage: These conflicts subside when the group
becomes more structured and standards emerge
4. Performance (performing) stage: The group moves beyond
disagreement and organizational matters to concentrate on the work to
be done
5. Dissolution (adjourning) stage: The group continues to function until
it reaches this stage
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Why Study Groups?
Understanding People
The fundamental attribution error occurs because perceivers are more likely to attribute a person’s
actions to personal, individual qualities rather than external, situational forces – including groups.
Perceivers are also often surprised when the same individual acts very differently when they change
groups. Many people assume that group-level processes only play a minor role in determining one’s
outcomes.
But group researchers are convinced that if one wishes to understand individuals, one must
understand groups. People behave differently when they are part of a group rather than alone and
they acquire and shape their attitudes, values, identities, skills, and principles in groups.
Furthermore, people often conform to group pressures and can even undergo fundamental and
relatively permanent changes in their beliefs and behaviors as a response to groups.
Understanding the Social World
The study of groups is also essential for understanding organizations, communities, and society itself.
Groups are the interpersonal microstructures that link individuals to society, so that the groups
within a social system determine that society’s culture and institutions.
Groups are also relevant for practical problems. After all, groups are the makers, builders and
producers of nearly everything the world needs and consumes.
2. Studying Groups
The Scientific Study of Groups
The Individual and the Group
There are two levels of analysis that can be taken when studying groups: Group-level analysis and
individual-level analysis. Sociological researchers tended to conduct group-level analyses while
psychological researchers favored individual-level analyses. In this context, Allport warned of the
group fallacy. Explaining social phenomena in terms of the group as a whole instead of basing the
explanation on the individual-level processes within the group does not make sense because it
means ascribing psychological qualities to the group as an entity.
The idea of group mind (= collective consciousness), which can be defined as a hypothetical unifying
mental force linking group members together, brought the group- and individual-level perspectives
into opposition. While group-level analysts believed that groups can share a single conscious mind,
individual-level analysts rejected this idea.
Just because researchers have never found any evidence for the existence of a real group mind, that
does not mean that other group-level concepts are equally unreasonable. Norms, for example, are
not just individual members’ personal standards – they are shared among group members and they
are more than just the sum of the individual beliefs of all members.
Lewin’s theoretical analyses of groups were influential in calming the debate between individual-
level and group-level approaches. His field theory is premised on the principle
𝑩 = 𝒇(𝑷, 𝑬)
of interactionism, which assumes that the actions, processes, and responses
of people in groups are determined by the interaction of the person and the environment. In a group
context, his formula implies that group members’ reactions (B) are a function of the interaction of
their personal characteristics (P) with the environment (E), which include features of the group, the
group members, and the situation. He also believed that the group is more than the sum of its parts
– thus, the group’s characteristics go beyond the characteristics of each individual member.
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The Multilevel Perspective
Over time, the unique contributions of each perspective were integrated in a multilevel perspective
on groups, which argues for examining processes that range along the micro-meso-macro
continuum. Micro-level factors include
the qualities, characteristics, and
actions of the individual members.
Meso-level factors include the qualities
of the groups themselves, such as their
cohesiveness, size, composition, or
structure. Lastly, macro-level factors
are the qualities and processes of the
larger collectives that enfold the
groups, such as communities,
organizations, or societies.
Measurement
Observation
Researchers who study groups often begin with observation, which involves watching and recording
the activities of individuals and groups. It is best to use naïve observers, who don’t know anything
about the hypothesis or research in order to avoid the distorted reports because of biases.
Additionally, one should always keep in mind the accuracy of the observer. For example,
observations can be made by several people (interrater reliability) and with the help of coding
systems. Observation may involve overt observation, covert observation, or participant observation.
Overt observation means to openly watch and record information with no attempt to conceal one’s
research purposes, while covert observation means to watch and record information without the
subjects’ knowledge. But one can also make use of participant observation, where researchers
watch and record group activities as a member of the group.
However, individuals have a tendency to act differently when they know they are being observed.
This so-called Hawthorne effect needs to be taken into account when doing research based on overt
or participant observation.
Simply observing and recording
behaviors in a relatively subjective
manner falls in the category of
qualitative studies, which only
describe general qualities and
characteristics instead of precise
quantities and amounts. Structured
observational methods are research
procedures that create a systematic
record of group interaction and
activities by classifying each overt
expression or action into a defined
category. This method yields
numeric results and is thus a
quantitative study.
Bales developed the Interaction
Process Analysis (IPA) to structure
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his observations. The IPA is a structured coding system used to measure group activity by classifying
each observed behavior into one of 12 categories. One half of these categories pertains to
relationship interaction, while the other half pertains to task interactions.
The Systematic Multiple Level Observation of Groups (SYMLOG) is a newer version that Bales
developed in order to generate a more global summary of group behavior and the overall behavioral
orientation of members. There are 26 categories which signal the members’ dominance-
submissiveness, friendliness-unfriendliness, and accepting-opposing the task orientation of
established authority.
Self-Report
Assessment methods such as questionnaires, tests, or interviews are self-report measures, which ask
respondents to describe their feelings, attitudes, or beliefs. When collecting data with self-report
measures, the clarity of the questions asked and social desirability need to be taken into account
when interpreting the results. Furthermore, not everything can be measured: Sometimes,
information is private, people do not want to disclose it or they are unaware of it.
Self-report measures can be used for sociometry, a
method for assessing the relationships among members of
a group and summarizing those relationships graphically.
The resulting diagram of the relationships among group
members is called a sociogram.
Sociometry was an early form of social network analysis
(SNA), which is a set of procedures for studying the
relational structure of groups and networks
mathematically and graphically. The method yields member-level indexes, group-level indexes, and a
graphic representation of the unit.
Physiological Measures
Physiological measures, such as blood pressure, heart beat, and skin conductance, can offer valuable
insights because people are usually unaware of them and unable to manipulate them in their favor.
However, their interpretation is open to subjective interpretation.
Virtual Reality
Virtual reality can be used to simulate scenarios that would not be ethical or feasible in real life,
allowing for exact manipulation and control. But external validity is low because the results cannot
easily be generalized to the real world.
Research Methods in Group Dynamics
Case Studies
A case study is a research technique that draws on multiple sources of information to examine, in
depth, the activities and dynamics of one or more groups. Case studies that are carried out with care
and objectivity are now widely recognized as indispensable tools for understanding group processes.
By focusing on a limited number of cases, researchers often provide detailed qualitative descriptions
of naturally occurring groups. These naturally occurring groups, also known as bona fide groups, are
often different from ad hoc groups created for research purposes and thus provide a different
insight.
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