2 – RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
How Is the Scientific Method Used in Psychological Research?
Empirism: psychologists (scientists) gain accurate knowledge about behavior and mental processes
only by observing the world and measuring aspects of it. To verify their observations and conclusions,
psychologists conduct empirical research, which requires carefully planned, systematic steps.
cyclical process
2.1 – Science Has Four Primary Goals
1) Description: what is this certain phenomenon?
2) Prediction: when will it occur?
3) Control: what causes it to occur?
4) Explanation: why does it occur?
Research involves the careful collection, analysis and
interpretation of data: a collection of measurements, gathered
during the research process. Scientific method: a systematic
and dynamic procedure of observing and measuring
phenomena, used to achieve the goals of description,
prediction, control, and explanation; it involves an interaction between research, theories, and
hypotheses.
̶ Theory: an explanation/model of how a phenomenon works; used to explain prior
observations and make predictions about future events.
̶ Hypothesis: a specific, testable prediction, narrower than the theory it is based on.
A good theory is falsifiable (it should be possible to test hypotheses that show the theory is wrong)
and supported by the data (the more, the better the support). A bad, not falsifiable theory: e.g.
Sigmund Freud; The Interpretation of Dreams. A good theory: e.g. Jean Piaget; theory of infant and
child development.
2.2 – The Scientific Method Tests Hypotheses
Series of seven steps during the scientific method:
1) Frame a research question: wide variety of interesting questions.
2) Conduct a literature review: find some resources (e.g. Google Scholar, PsychINFO, PubMed).
3) Form a hypothesis: testable predictions, based on your learnings in your literature review.
4) Design a study: choose a research method. E.g. conducting a survey, conducting a naturalistic
observation (you could use video cameras) or performing an actual experiment with groups of
people.
5) Conduct the study: recruit (choose) participants and measure their responses; gathering data.
Also, define the appropriate size and type of sample of participants.
6) Analyze the data: describe the data and see what conclusions you can draw. Are the results
meaningful or happened by chance? -> Ask whether you found a significant effect.
7) Report the results: make your findings public to make them valuable, to benefit society, to support
the scientific culture and to permit other scientists to build on your work. E.g. by presenting your
data at poster sessions. Full reports consist of the background and significance of the research, the
full methodology for how the question was studied, the complete results of the descriptive and
inferential statistical analyses, and a discussion of what the results mean, in relation to the
accumulated body of scientific evidence.
2.3 – The Scientific Method is Cyclical
No single study can provide a definite answer about any phenomenon; the same sort of work needs
to be performed repeatedly. Replication: repeating a study to see if the results are similar/ the same
(ideally by other, not affiliated researchers). The more studies with similar results, the higher the
confidence in the findings.
, Reproducibility Project: a large group of psychologists sought to replicate findings that had been
published during the year 2008; only 39% of the 100 repeated studies replicated.
Possible explanations for failed replications:
̶ Contextual factors: attitudes and circumstances change throughout the years. Besides,
cultural norms can differ (e.g. attitudes toward marriage)
̶ Problematic research methods: e.g. poor design or not having enough research participants.
Critical studies: studies that directly contrast multiple theories (about a particular aspect of human
behavior) to see which one best explains the data.
2.4 – Evaluating Scientific Findings Requires Critical Thinking
Critical thinking: systematically questioning and evaluating information using well-supported
evidence. This is an ability, a skill; not something you can just learn, but something you have to
practice and develop over time. Not just for scientists, but essential for becoming an educated
consumer of education.
How to develop critical thinking:
1) Question information: what is the evidence in support of this claim? Is the evidence based on
direct, unbiased observation or on rumor/ hearsay/ intuition?
2) Ask for the definition of each part of a claim: e.g. ‘using a cell phone while driving is more
dangerous than driving while intoxicated.’ -> By ‘using a cell phone’, do they mean texting or talking?
Do they mean a handheld or hands-free device? And would being ‘intoxicated’ require a little or a lot
of alcohol? etc.
3) Get to the source of the claim: where did you first see or hear the claim. On TV, radio, in a
newspaper? etc. Could it be made up for advertising or political purposes (fake news)?
4) Think about the evidence offered by the source to support the claim: is it scientific evidence? Or
intuition? Or is it simply someone in authority making the claim? How did they retrieve this
information? (from a newswire, from an interview with a scientists, etc.)
Peer review: a process in which other scientists with similar expertise evaluate and critique research
reports before publication. This ensures that published reports describe research studies that are
well designed, that are conducted in an ethical manner and that address an important question.
However, this doesn’t mean that flawed studies are never published -> critical thinkers must always
stay vigilant.
What Types of Studies Are Used in Psychological Research?
Three main types of research methods: descriptive, correlational and experimental. All research
involves variables: something in the world that can vary and that the researcher can manipulate
(change), measure (evaluate), or both (e.g. the number of texts sent, the familiarity with the texting
device, etc.).
2.5 – Descriptive Research Consists of Case Studies, Observation and Self-Report Methods
Descriptive research: methods that involve observing behavior to describe that behavior objectively
and systematically. E.g. recording the types of foods that people eat in cafeterias. Three basic types:
̶ Case study: intensive examination (= observation, recording and description) of an unusual
person or organization. E.g. someone with an exceptional memory or an organization that is
making a lot of money. Drawback: the findings do not generalize: you cannot tell if the same
would happen to others.
̶ Observational study: two types of techniques:
̶ Participant observation: researcher is involved in the situation.
̶ Naturalistic observation: researcher is passive, separated from the situation.
How Is the Scientific Method Used in Psychological Research?
Empirism: psychologists (scientists) gain accurate knowledge about behavior and mental processes
only by observing the world and measuring aspects of it. To verify their observations and conclusions,
psychologists conduct empirical research, which requires carefully planned, systematic steps.
cyclical process
2.1 – Science Has Four Primary Goals
1) Description: what is this certain phenomenon?
2) Prediction: when will it occur?
3) Control: what causes it to occur?
4) Explanation: why does it occur?
Research involves the careful collection, analysis and
interpretation of data: a collection of measurements, gathered
during the research process. Scientific method: a systematic
and dynamic procedure of observing and measuring
phenomena, used to achieve the goals of description,
prediction, control, and explanation; it involves an interaction between research, theories, and
hypotheses.
̶ Theory: an explanation/model of how a phenomenon works; used to explain prior
observations and make predictions about future events.
̶ Hypothesis: a specific, testable prediction, narrower than the theory it is based on.
A good theory is falsifiable (it should be possible to test hypotheses that show the theory is wrong)
and supported by the data (the more, the better the support). A bad, not falsifiable theory: e.g.
Sigmund Freud; The Interpretation of Dreams. A good theory: e.g. Jean Piaget; theory of infant and
child development.
2.2 – The Scientific Method Tests Hypotheses
Series of seven steps during the scientific method:
1) Frame a research question: wide variety of interesting questions.
2) Conduct a literature review: find some resources (e.g. Google Scholar, PsychINFO, PubMed).
3) Form a hypothesis: testable predictions, based on your learnings in your literature review.
4) Design a study: choose a research method. E.g. conducting a survey, conducting a naturalistic
observation (you could use video cameras) or performing an actual experiment with groups of
people.
5) Conduct the study: recruit (choose) participants and measure their responses; gathering data.
Also, define the appropriate size and type of sample of participants.
6) Analyze the data: describe the data and see what conclusions you can draw. Are the results
meaningful or happened by chance? -> Ask whether you found a significant effect.
7) Report the results: make your findings public to make them valuable, to benefit society, to support
the scientific culture and to permit other scientists to build on your work. E.g. by presenting your
data at poster sessions. Full reports consist of the background and significance of the research, the
full methodology for how the question was studied, the complete results of the descriptive and
inferential statistical analyses, and a discussion of what the results mean, in relation to the
accumulated body of scientific evidence.
2.3 – The Scientific Method is Cyclical
No single study can provide a definite answer about any phenomenon; the same sort of work needs
to be performed repeatedly. Replication: repeating a study to see if the results are similar/ the same
(ideally by other, not affiliated researchers). The more studies with similar results, the higher the
confidence in the findings.
, Reproducibility Project: a large group of psychologists sought to replicate findings that had been
published during the year 2008; only 39% of the 100 repeated studies replicated.
Possible explanations for failed replications:
̶ Contextual factors: attitudes and circumstances change throughout the years. Besides,
cultural norms can differ (e.g. attitudes toward marriage)
̶ Problematic research methods: e.g. poor design or not having enough research participants.
Critical studies: studies that directly contrast multiple theories (about a particular aspect of human
behavior) to see which one best explains the data.
2.4 – Evaluating Scientific Findings Requires Critical Thinking
Critical thinking: systematically questioning and evaluating information using well-supported
evidence. This is an ability, a skill; not something you can just learn, but something you have to
practice and develop over time. Not just for scientists, but essential for becoming an educated
consumer of education.
How to develop critical thinking:
1) Question information: what is the evidence in support of this claim? Is the evidence based on
direct, unbiased observation or on rumor/ hearsay/ intuition?
2) Ask for the definition of each part of a claim: e.g. ‘using a cell phone while driving is more
dangerous than driving while intoxicated.’ -> By ‘using a cell phone’, do they mean texting or talking?
Do they mean a handheld or hands-free device? And would being ‘intoxicated’ require a little or a lot
of alcohol? etc.
3) Get to the source of the claim: where did you first see or hear the claim. On TV, radio, in a
newspaper? etc. Could it be made up for advertising or political purposes (fake news)?
4) Think about the evidence offered by the source to support the claim: is it scientific evidence? Or
intuition? Or is it simply someone in authority making the claim? How did they retrieve this
information? (from a newswire, from an interview with a scientists, etc.)
Peer review: a process in which other scientists with similar expertise evaluate and critique research
reports before publication. This ensures that published reports describe research studies that are
well designed, that are conducted in an ethical manner and that address an important question.
However, this doesn’t mean that flawed studies are never published -> critical thinkers must always
stay vigilant.
What Types of Studies Are Used in Psychological Research?
Three main types of research methods: descriptive, correlational and experimental. All research
involves variables: something in the world that can vary and that the researcher can manipulate
(change), measure (evaluate), or both (e.g. the number of texts sent, the familiarity with the texting
device, etc.).
2.5 – Descriptive Research Consists of Case Studies, Observation and Self-Report Methods
Descriptive research: methods that involve observing behavior to describe that behavior objectively
and systematically. E.g. recording the types of foods that people eat in cafeterias. Three basic types:
̶ Case study: intensive examination (= observation, recording and description) of an unusual
person or organization. E.g. someone with an exceptional memory or an organization that is
making a lot of money. Drawback: the findings do not generalize: you cannot tell if the same
would happen to others.
̶ Observational study: two types of techniques:
̶ Participant observation: researcher is involved in the situation.
̶ Naturalistic observation: researcher is passive, separated from the situation.
