YOUTH AND SEXUALITY LECTURE NOTES
WEEK 1: YOUTH, SEXUALITY AND GENDER
LECTURE 1: YOUTH, SEXUALITY AND GENDER
CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
There is a distinction between sex/seks and sex/sekse. Sex/seks as short for sexuality is often
narrowly understood as: activities towards sexual arousal. Sex as in sekse refers to biology; it is a set
of biological characteristics defining human beings as male or female. There is also gender, which is
the sociological counterpart of biological sex. Gender refers to the social-cultural and normative
definitions of masculinity and femininity, and all the processes and effects that are connected to those
normative definitions. Often, the three concepts are used interchangeably or incorrect.
Another important concept is sexuality. Sexuality is a central aspect of human being; it is the central
aspect throughout life, regardless of someone's age, that encompasses biological sex, gender identity,
gender roles, sexual orientation, eroticism, intimacy, reproduction and pleasure. Besides, sexuality is
experienced and expressed in thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviours,
practices, roles and relationships. While sexuality can include all of these dimensions, not all of them
are always experienced or expressed, because society put heavy limitation on the experience and
expression of sexuality; there are sexual norms and structures. Also, there are a lot of domains that
organize the way in which sexuality is influenced: sexuality is influenced by the interaction of
biological, psychological, social, economic, political, cultural, legal, historical, religious and spiritual
factors. This is the definition of sexuality of the WHO.
The WHO also gives an definition of ‘sexual health’:
- A state of physical, emotional, mental and social well-being in relation to sexuality.
- It is not merely the absence of disease, dysfunction or infirmity. It is much more
positively formulated, as in sexual health requires a positive and respectful approach to
sexuality and sexual relationships, as well as the possibility of having pleasurable and
safe sexual experiences, free of coercion, discrimination and violence.
- For sexual health to be attained and maintained, the sexual rights of all persons must be
respected, protected and fulfilled.
- The outcomes mostly studied are much narrower, such as STIs/HIV, unplanned pregnancies,
sexual violence, sexual function and satisfaction. These are mostly biological measures, while
psychological and social measures are studied much less, except for pleasure.
THE IMPORTANCE OF (STUDYING) SEXUALITY IN YOUNG PEOPLE
There are multiple reasons why sexuality is an important issue (to study):
1. Sexuality is associated with the highest happiness and the deepest sorrow.
2. Sexuality is entwined with gender roles and women’s societal and social position. For
example, norms about sexuality keep women in the kitchen or from school.
3. Sexuality is an important health issue, involving high costs both is somatic health care as well
as in mental health care. There is a multitude of problems and issues associated with
sexuality that come up in health care.
4. Sexuality is an important issue in education, policing and jurisdiction.
Education: young people need to learn about sexuality.
, Policing & jurisdiction: some sexuality is criminal, such as rape.
5. Sexuality is interwoven with (other) important issues, such as:
Population (density and/or growth) and ecological pressure that comes with that.
Human rights, sexual justice, civilization.
Global health, burden of disease.
WHY IS SEXUALITY IMPORTANT TO ADOLESCENTS AND IN ADOLESCENT
DEVELOPMENT?
Here we can relate to Erikson's theory, which states that sexuality does function as a lever to the
development of identity and intimacy. First, sexuality and intimate relationships are important in
relation in the developmental task from becoming independent from the parent. This independent task
is often first played out in the area of sexuality and relationships. The same is true for personal
morality; a lot of moral issues relate to sexuality, intimacy and gender. So, gender and sexuality are
very important for the development of personal morality. Furthermore, sexuality and intimate
relationships are important for the development of the capacity for meaningful intimate relationships.
Other aspects for which sexuality and intimacy are important are:
- It is crucial in finding the balance between autonomy and connectedness.
- Adolescent intimate relationships form a training ground for adulthood.
So, overall it could be concluded that sexuality functions as a crowbar/lever for the
development of identity, morality and intimacy
SHORT HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
The social regulation of sexuality refer to the legal legislations put on sexuality, for example
marriage, which relationships you can choose, whether you may use contraception, etc. There are
also social norms and related practices related to sexuality. This regulation is sexuality is of all times
and places, but the degree of moral restriction varies. Universally, however, it affects women and
non-heterosexual primarily. There is a variety of explanations for this (particularly referring to
women):
- Authorities and states want to protect the status quo of patriarchy, patriarchal power
nations states’ safety and national identities.
- States want to prevent a state of chaos (not letting women having the sex/sexuality they
want) and a state of anarchy by regulating sexuality.
- Evolutionary perspective: the concept of paternal uncertainty is crucial; woman sexuality is
being regulated because otherwise they won't be able to know who is the father of their off-
spring.
- Historical changes where there is a gradual shift towards social exclusion and objectification of
woman, dependency from woman on men, connected to the fact that there is increasing male
dominance.
- Pure misogyny
Within these general developments, there were a lot of historical and geographical variations.
Important for us in Europa was the clear tightening of rules during the 19th century, the
Victorian era. In the Victorian era, youth were seen as a-sexual. In the 19th century,
industrialisation was taking place and there was a strong emphasis on masculinity and
differences of gender roles, which was tight to more strict rules. However, in the beginning
of the 20th century, there was a wave of democratisation and informalization of gender
equality, attention to woman's rights (feminist wave). Therefore, codes regarding sexuality became
less strict; there was a much less strict atmosphere in the first half of the 20 th century. This was
for example expressed in the rise of contraceptive care and sexological science.
,Other scientific developments in the first half of the 20 th century were:
- The rise of sexological science changed the perspective of sexuality from religious-
moral to medical-psychiatric
- German psychiatrists laid the foundation sexology as we know it now.
Names associated with this period were: von Kraft-Ebing, Hirschfeld, Freud, Reich
(sexuality needs to be liberated for people to become free, it is a pre-condition
for total human freedom).
- WW2 ends first florescence abruptly since a lot of the people mentioned above fled/were
murdered.
- After WW2 the leading role was taken by Americans
Names associated with this period were: Kinsey (about sexuality of women
mainly), Money, Masters & Johnson (were no social scientists).
- Simone de Beauvoir La Deuxième Sexe (1949) ‘On ne naît pas femme: on le deviant (‘Je
bent geen vrouw geboren: je wordt er een)
In this period of time, John Money came with the concept of gender. He defined gender as ‘all the
non-genital and non-erotic activities that are defined by the conventions of society to apply to
males or to females’. So, this was really about the social-cultural counterparts of biological
sex. The concept was first used in the 50s and 60s in the USA, especially in clinical work with
transgenders. In the 70s, gender was in particular widespread by feminist scholars, who came
used the concept as an antithesis to biological determinism.
Overall, we can see developments in the concept on gender which are associated with scientific
developments in general, from modern to postmodern perspectives:
- Gender as individual attribute: gender identity, gender investment, gender attitude
- Gender as social norm: gender roles, gender stereotype, the gender double standard,
- Gender as process, ‘doing gender’: social process characteristic of social interaction; the
continuous, daily enactment of gender roles and the sexual double standard.
In the 60s and 70s there were also things that happened regarding sexuality:
- Many sexual taboos disappeared 2nd feminist wave: the
contraceptive pill, sexual revolution.
- The discovery of the human sexual response cycle: excitement,
plateau, orgasm, revolution (& later excitement was added).
- The emergence of social-constructionist perspectives, stressing the
social perspectives and aspects of sexuality.
- Homosexuality was deleted from DSM in 1974.
- There was a growing attention for sexual violence.
- Sexology stilly mainly focused on adults at that time.
Further developments regarding sexuality in the 80s and 90s were:
- There were big societal developments: increasing migration, VN conventions, strengthening
Human Rights perspectives (such as reproductive rights or gender equality).
- In 1981, HIV was discovered.
- There was an increasing medicalisation (such as Viagra in 1998) and its criticisms.
- The nature-nurture debate intensified.
- The adoption of the concept ‘sexual health’; SRHR (sexual reproductive health & rights) was
on the rise.
- Young people were hesitantly acknowledged as sexual beings.
, Out of these developments, it could be concluded that there was increasing attention for sexual right.
Fundamentally, sexual rights are human rights in the area of sexuality, and they comprise reproductive
rights. Moreover, sexual rights refer to (1) freedoms from negative things, and (2) freedoms to
positive things. Negative things are discrimination & stigma, coercion & violence. Positive
things are a satisfying sex life; adequate information and education; supplies, medicine, health
care (such as abortion care); Self-determination in relation to sexual partners, sexual orientation,
relationships and living arrangements, reproduction (timing and number of children).
Era 2.0
Finally, the era 2.0 really experienced far-reaching globalisation. Accessory developments that come
with this have an enormous impact on our relationships and social lives. Such developments are a
growing world population, technologisation, mediatisation and commercialisation of our social
world. Developments in the area of sexuality are completely intertwined with these
developments. Moreover, in era 2.0 the larger part of research about sexuality addresses
sexual risks of young people’s sexuality. These risks might have led to the moral panics about
young people and sexuality which are prominent now. These moral panics have certain
characteristics:
1. Scientific debates are always related to the rise of 'new' media.
2. Supposedly harmful sexualisation; sexuality will harm young people.
3. Fear for downfall of childhood innocence
4. Need to protect the adolescent girl in particular.
CHILDHOOD INNOCENCE
These latter two aspects raise the question whether children really are sexually innocent. Regarding
the fear of downfall childhood innocence: after Freud, the attention for children’s sexual feelings
relegated to the background; they didn’t talk about the sexual feelings of children anymore. There
was an increasing emphasis on the need to protect children. Because of this, people were
convinced that children were a-sexual, innocent and vulnerable. However, there is a lot of
evidence that this is not the case: children do have and experience sexual interest, excitement
and desire. These behaviours and feelings bring uneasiness (onbehaagelijk), rejection and negative
reactions from parent and others. Thus, they systematically frame children as sexual innocent. This
sexual innocence makes them vulnerable, because it deprives the of necessary knowledge and
skills.
Groups that oppose sexuality education state that it will stimulate sexual activity. Proponents of
sexuality education, on the other hand say that if we don't talk about sexuality, we won't give them the
proper tools, knowledge and skill they will need to become to develop their sexuality in proper and
save ways. Another reason why framing children as sexual innocents makes them vulnerable is
because the innocence is eroticised.
AMBIVALENCE AND CONTROVERSY AROUND FEMALE SEXUALITY
The fact that there is a need to protect the adolescent girl has to do with the ambivalence
(tegenstrijdigheid) and controversy around female sexuality. The Madonna-whore dichotomy is
used to explain that there is a distinction between good and bad for woman on the basis of their sexual
behaviour. This is not the case when it comes to men, however.
In our societies, we are dealing with sexual double standards and heteronormativity:
Sexual double standard: the norms that evaluate women’s sexuality differs with those for
men. For instance, for men it is cool to have different sex partners, but if a woman does this,
she will be a called a slut.
