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Summary Introduction to International and EU law nabespreking probleem 7
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- Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam (EUR)
Introduction to International and EU law nabespreking probleem 7
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Introduction to International and European Union law reportingproblem 7
Learning objectives:
- Under which conditions does international law allow the use of force by states?
- Who has access to the International Court of Justice and under which conditions may
actors have access to the ICJ?
Literature:
- Henriksen, Chapter 12 & Chapter 13.
- Case law: Nicaragua and Armed activities
Under which conditions does international law allow the use of
force by states?
There are two distinctions to be made with regard to the use of force in international law:
- Jus ad bellum: rules addressing the question when and for what purpose force may
be used against another state. This primarily relates to the initial political decision of
using force against another state
- Jus in bello: rules relating to how military hostilities must be conducted. This is about
the manner in which that political decision is implemented.
The UN Charter and the prohibition on the use of force
The UN Charter
The UN Charter was created by the UN in 1945 to avoid another conflict like the Second
World War. The Charter is therefore mainly focused at keeping international peace. The UN
is about securing stability, preventing the use of unilateral force and thereby save succeeding
generations from the scourge of war. Although the UN Charter is not an anti-war document.
States knew that in order to uphold peace, it may sometimes be necessary to use force. The
Charter therefore has established a system of rules by which the international community, via
the Security Council, can take measures in order to restore international peace and security.
The prohibition on the use of force
The rule on the prohibition on the use of force can be found in article 2(4) UN Charter. This
stipulates that: ‘ All members of the UN shall refrain in their international relations from the
threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or
in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations.’
The prohibition of the use of force is also to be found under customary international law. In
the Nicaragua case the ICJ stated that prohibition on the use of force in the UN Charter and
the prohibition on the use of force in customary law are not identical. Furthermore the ICJ
made clear that the prohibition of force under the UN Charter and the prohibition of force in
customary international law exist at the same time and don’t supersede each other. (para.
174, 175, 176 and 181).
Nicaragua 188 until 190
, Using force on the basis of valid consent from a host state is not prescribed by article 2(4).
But, consent is a circumstance that precludes the wrongfulness of an act otherwise in
violation of an international obligation. An example are the UN peacekeeping operations.
Inferences that fall below the threshold for constituting force under article 2(4) UN Charter
A state’s interference in another state that does not constitute force under article 2(4) may
still violate international law:
1. The principle of territorial sovereignty dictates that a state may not exercise its
physical power in any form in the territory of another state. A violation of that principle
constitutes a breach of sovereignty. The obligation to respect the sovereignty of other
states is reflected in article 2(1) UN Charter. According to the 2017 Tallinn Manual
2.0, cyber-espionage conducted by state A against state B (only) violates the
sovereignty of the latter if the agents of state A are physically present on the territory
of state B or if the cyber operation causes injury, physical damage or a loss of
functionality, or if it interferes with the inherently governmental functions of state B.
2. An interference that falls below the threshold of force may also violate the principle of
non-intervention, according to which a state may not intervene in the internal affairs of
another state. The UN Charter does not say it clearly, but it springs from the
sovereign equality of states, reflected in art. 2(1) UN Charter. The prohibition against
interventions consist of two elements:
I. An intervention aimed at. They key to this element is coercion. This are acts
that are intended to cause a change in policy in another state that can violate
the principle. Coercion doesn’t have to be physical, but it must be
distinguished from persuasion, criticism and propaganda.
II. A matter in which each state is permitted to decide freely (Nicaragua, para.
205). An intervention only violates international law if it seeks to coerce a state
on such matters ‘which must remain free ones’ (Nicaragua, para. 205).
In the Nicaragua case the ICJ concluded that the US support to the military and paramilitary
activities of the Nicaraguan contras, including financial support, training, weapons supply and
intelligence and logistical support violated the principle of non-intervention (para. 228)
A state that is the victim of a breach of sovereignty or an unlawful intervention may initiate
countermeasures against the responsible state. A countermeasure cannot, however, take the
form of use of force unless it is a response to an armed attack.
The Security Council and the maintenance of international peace and security
The UN Charter gives the Security Council primary responsibility for the maintenance of
international peace and security. Use of force authorized by the Council does not violate the
prohibition on the use of force in art. 2(4) UN Charter.
The Charter gives the Security Council wide- ranging powers. The Council can adopt non-
coercive and non- binding measures under Chapter VI. Under Chapter VII it can adopt
coercive and binding measures if the Council determines that an ongoing dispute constitutes
a threat to the peace. Art. 25 UN Charter: member states agree to carry out the decisions of
the Council. Art. 103 UN Charter: obligations undertaken under the Charter prevail over other
international obligations.
Determinations under Article 39
Article 39 UN Charter specifies that the Security Council shall initially determine the
existence of ‘any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression’. Within the
concept of ‘threat to the peace’ may fall everything from internal conflicts, humanitarian
crises, violations of democratic principles, acts of terrorism, piracy, the Ebola outbreak and
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