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Samenvatting Work in the 21st Century, ISBN: 9781119590262 Arbeids- Organisatie En Personeelspsychologie (PSBA2-03)
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1Work in the 21st Century – Sixth Edition
Chapter 1 – What is Industrial and Organizational Psychology?
1.1 The importance of I-O Psychology
Work is a defining characteristic of the way people gauge their value to society, their family
and themselves. ‘Good work’ is work that exhibits a high level of expertise, and it entails
regular concern with the implication and application of an individual’s work for the wider
world.
Industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology is the application of psychological principles,
theory, and research to the work setting. The domain of I-O psychology stretches well
beyond the physical boundaries of the workplace because many of the factors that influence
work behavior are not always found in the work setting. These factors include things like
family responsibilities, cultural influences, employment-related legislation, and nonwerk
events.
Traditionally I-O psychology has been divided into three major concentrations:
- Personnel psychology often seen as a part of human resources management
addresses issues such as recruitment, selection, training, performance appraisal,
promotion, transfer, and termination.
- Organizational psychology combines research and ideas from social psychology and
organizational behavior. It addresses the emotional and motivational side of work. It
includes topics such as attitudes, fairness, motivation, stress, leadership, teams, and
the broader aspects of organizational and work design.
- Human engineering is the study of the capacities and limitations of humans with
respect to a particular environment. In the human engineering approach, the task of
the human engineer is to develop an environment that is compatible with the
characteristics of the worker.
In the I-O psychology is a clear connection between research conducted using the tools of
science and the practice of I-O psychology. This emphasis on the application of scientific
knowledge is known as the scientist-practioner model. I-O psychologists have become
increasingly focused on making evidence-based decisions in their work in organizations.
1.2 The Past, Present, and Future of I-O Psychology
I-O psychology began with studies of industrial efficiency and individual differences. The
latter led to mental ability tests. The Hawthorne studies prompted the study of worker’s
emotions. Human engineering came to prominence during World War II. Title VII of the Civil
Rights Act of 1964 required employers to justify testing and other policies in term of equal
opportunity.
There are many opportunities for I-O psychology to contribute to employers, workers, and
the broader society in which we live. To make these contributions, I-O psychology needs to
meet four challenges:
- I-O psychology needs to be relevant. We need to study the problems of today, not
those of yesterday.
- I-O psychology needs to be useful. I-O psychologists must always be thinking of ways
to put our research into practice.
- I-O psychology needs to think bigger.
- I-O psychology needs to be grounded in the scientific method.
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1.3 Multicultural and Cross-Cultural Issues in I-O Psychology
Perhaps the most important material for a psychologist is culture. A culture can be defined
as a system in which individuals share meanings and common ways of viewing events and
objects. This highlights the opportunity for people to bring different meanings and
interpretations to an event or an object. As the world of work brings together people of
many different cultures, the opportunities for misunderstanding and ineffective or
counterproductive human resource applications grow as the number of different cultures
grows. The global economy has made it important for all countries to foster economic
connections with others.
Researchers have tended to develop theories that are relevant to USA situations, with less
concern about their applicability in other countries. This is called the ‘West versus the Rest’
mentality. Not surprisingly, attempts to apply American theories to non-american situations
are not always successful. There are differences between the culture in different countries.
Collectivist culture is a culture that values the group more than the individual. But in an
individualist culture the individual is valued more than the group.
Hofstede has developed a theory that proposes five basic elements on which cultures can be
distinguished:
- Individualism / collectivism
- Power distance
- Uncertainty avoidance
- Masculinity / femininity
- Long-term versus short-term orientation
Triandis suggested a variation on Hofstede’s dimension of individualism/collectivism. That is,
a horizontal/vertical dimension interacts individualism/collectivism. Horizontal cultures are
those that minimize distances between individuals, whereas vertical cultures accept and
depend on those distances.
Chapter 2 – Research Methods and Statistics in I-O Psychology
2.1 Science and Research
Science is the approach that involves the understanding, prediction, and control of some
phenomenon of interest. All science share certain common methods:
- Science is marked by a logical approach to investigation, usually based on a theory, a
hypothesis, or simply a basic curiosity about an object of interest.
- Science depends on data.
- Science must be communicable, open, and public.
- Science does not set out to prove theories or hypotheses. It sets out to disprove
them.
- Disinterestedness, the expectation that scientist will be objective and not influenced
by biases or prejudices.
I-O research is important to organizations because every course of action that an
organization decides on is, in effect, a prediction or anticipation of a given outcome. The
better the research base that support that prediction, the more confident the organization
can be of the outcome.
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The research design proved the overall structure or architecture for the research study, it
allows investigators to conduct scientific research on a phenomenon of interest. There are
three types of designs: experimental, quasi-experimental, and nonexperimental. There are
two common nonexperimental designs: observational design and survey design.
The ‘I’ part of I-O, has used quantitative methods for measuring important variables or
behavior. Quantitative methods yield results in terms of numbers. They can be contrasted
with qualitative methods of investigation, which generally produce flow diagrams and
narrative descriptions of events or processes. The added value of qualitative research is that
it helps to identify the context for the behavior in question.
Ethical standards for I-O psychologists are set forth by the APA, SIOP, and other
organizations such as the Academy of Management. The overriding ethical principle is ‘do
not harm’.
2.2 Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics are statistics that summarize, organize, and describe a sample of data.
Begrippen: measure of central tendency, variability, skew, mean, mode, median.
Inferential statistics are statistics used to aid the researcher in testing hypotheses and
making inferences from sample data to a larger sample or population.
Pages 64 to 72 not further summarized, basic knowledge of statistics.
Micro-research is the study of individual behavior. Macro-research is the study of collective
behavior. Meso-research is the study of the interaction of individual and collective behavior.
2.3 Interpretation trough Reliability and Validity
Reliability is the consistency or stability of a measure. There are different forms of reliability:
- Test-retest reliability: a type of reliability calculated by correlating measurements
taken at time 1 with measurements taken at time 2.
- Equivalent forms reliability: a type of reliability calculated by correlating
measurements from a sample of individuals who complete two different forms of the
same test.
- Internal consistency, form of reliability that assesses how consistently the items of a
test measure a single construct. Affected by the number of items in the test and the
correlations among the test items.
- Inter-rater reliability: we would expect the raters to agree regarding what they have
observed.
Validity is the accuracy of inferences made based on test or performance data. Also
addresses whether a measure accurately and completely represents what was intended to
be measured.
- Criterion-related validity: validity approach that is demonstrated by correlating a
test score with a performance measure. Improves researcher’s confidence in the
inference that people with higher test scores have higher performance.
- Predictive validity design: criterion-related validity design in which there is a time lag
between collection of the test data and the criterion data.
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- Concurrent validity design: criterion-related validity design in which there is no time
lag between gathering the test scores and the performance data.
- Content-related validation design: a design that demonstrates that the content of
the selection procedure represents an adequate sample of important work behaviors
and activities and/or workers knowledge, skills, abilities, or other characteristics
defined by the job analysis.
- Construct validity: validity approach in which investigators gather evidence to
support decisions or inferences about psychological constructs. Often begins with
investigators demonstrating that a test designed to measure a particular construct
correlates with other tests in the predicted manner.
Chapter 3 – Individual differences and assessment
3.1 An Introduction to Individual Differences
The individual differences among people on various attributes such as intelligence,
personality, and knowledge are important in understanding a wide variety of socially
important outcomes: academic achievement, intellectual development, crime and
delinquency, income and poverty, and occupational performance.
Wundt discovered that there were differences among individuals. Catell developed the
concept of a mental test as a way of charting these differences. Because the subject matter
of this research was differences, the study of differences became known as differential
psychology. Catell had developed methods of measuring mental ability, placing it on a scale
or metric. As a result, the actual measurement of abilities became known as psychometrics.
When the USA entered WO I, the leading industrial psychologists of the time persuaded the
army to use intelligence tests to screen recruits and determine who should attend officers’
candidate school. In the postwar years, intelligence tests were adapted for use in selecting
individuals for jobs with government and industry.
In the past 20 years, there has been a substantial shift in thinking about individual
differences. Instead of simply examining general mental ability (g) to understand and
predict the behavior of workers, researchers are broadening the field of examination. In
addition to cognitive ability, work psychologists now consider individual differences in
physical abilities, personality, interests, knowledge, and emotion. I-O psychologists make
the following assumptions when they apply the individual differences model:
1. Adults have a variety of attributes, and the levels of these attributes are relatively
stable over a reasonable time period.
2. People differ with respect to these attributes, and these differences are associated
with job success.
3. The relative differences between people on these attributes remain even after
training, job experience, or some other intervention.
4. Different jobs require different attributes
5. These attributes can be measured.
3.2 Human Attributes
Fleishman began a program of research to determine the most common mental and physical
abilities associated with human performance, including work performance. The result was a
taxonomy of 52 abilities, which can be divided into the broad categories of cognitive,
physical and perceptual-motor abilities.
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