1 Culture, Communication and Global Citizenship
1.1 What is Culture? Visible and Invisible Culture?
Edgar Schein: “Culture consists of layers, like an onion.”
1. Artefacts of culture
2. Norms and values
3. Basic assumptions
1. The outer layer or material culture is called ‘artefacts of culture’.
Artefacts are the first things you notice when you enter a new
Illustration 1 Cultural onion
country/culture.
An example: In the Netherlands, foreigners notice bicycle lanes, large windows and open
curtains, tall people and how they dress.
When entering a new company, you’ll notice the logo, how they dress, the house style.
Artefacts are very easy to notice and good/nice to know.
2. The second layer is called the ‘norms and values’ .
Norms and values are written and unwritten rules, desired behaviour. Is it the norm to arrive
exactly on time or 3 minutes early? What is acceptable and what not?
Another way to describe value is what is good and what is right? Examples of value are:
Should I stand up for an elderly person on a crowded bus?
Norms and Values aren’t as visible as the artefacts of culture, but with the necessary effort and
observation, they can be learned.
3. The last layer is called the ‘basic assumptions’.
Basic assumptions are abstract and invisible. They are learned when we are very young,
before the age of seven. Most people are unaware of their influence.
The judgement we make of others are shaped or distorted by the basic assumptions of our
culture.
Intercultural communication is about making us aware of the basic assumptions of out own
culture and recognising the basic assumptions of other cultures. This will allow us to
communicate creatively and more effectively with people from other cultures. How? To use
cultural diversity at work as a source of inspiration and growth, and to achieve cultural
synergy (collaboration).
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,1.2 Definition of Culture
Culture is the familiar way we think, feel and behave. How we learned this and share the meaning of it
with other members of society. There is an endless list of the definition of culture. Below you can find
four definitions of culture.
The British anthropologist, Edward B. Tylor (1871) was the first to define culture as:
“… That comples whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, las, morals, custom and any
other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” (Tylor, 1871).
“… That complex whole…” makes Tylor’s definition of culture inclusive. (Meaning everyone
has culture, and not just a select group of people.) And from “… acquired … as a member of
society”, we can conclude:
o Culture belongs to a society or a group
o Culture is something that we learn
Edgar Schein defines culture as “… A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group
learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that had
worked well enough to be considered valid and therefore to be taught to new members as the
correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems” (Schein, 2004).
Mijnd Huijser defines culture as “… A group’s set of shared norms and values expressed in
the behaviour of the group’s members” (Huijser, 2006).
Geert Hofstede: “Culture is the collective programming of the mind, which distinguishes the
members of one group or category of people from another” (Hofstede, 1991).
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, 1.3 Cultural Programming
Hofstede calls learning culture, ‘programming’. You can also call it ‘learning’, like Edgar Schein does.
We are programmed through upbringing, socialisation, norms and values, and perception.
Upbringing
For example: a simple handshake. There’s nothing natural about a handshake. You’re not born with
the feature of shaking hands. It’s drilled/programmed into your way of thinking, so you think shaking
hands is normal.
Socialisation
Socialisation is interacting with others. Through socialisation, you learn how firm a desirable
handshake is and even the right smile and amount of eye contact to go with.
In Europe is a firm handshake desirable and a limp handshake is associated with weakness of
character. However, in Asian countries a firm handshake is seen as aggressive and a ‘limp’ handshake
is seen as more polite.
Norms and values
We’re also programmed through norms and values. If you value showing respect to older people, then
it is the norm to give up your seat to an elderly person on the bus. In some countries the norm is to
give up your seat to children, because children are small and vulnerable.
Perception
We make conscious and unconscious choices about how we want to behave. Programming does not
make us cultural robots. Regardless of culture, each person is a unique individual and makes choices.
There are three levels of programming:
1. Individual
2. Cultural
3. Human Nature
If we haven’t eaten for days, human nature makes us look for something to eat and devour it with our
hands! When we decide to put it on a plate and use knife and fork is our cultural programming. And
some individuals may even choose not to eat it with knife and fork, regardless of what society may
think.
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