SCHOOL NEUROPSYCHOLOGY: MIND, BRAIN & EDUCATION
Lecture 1 Essentials of school neuropsychology
SNP = school neuropsychology
School neuropsychology
Clinical discipline in educational settings. Sub discipline of school psychology, not a field that is
directly emerging from clinical neuropsychology. E.g., working at schools, developing tests that can
be used in schools.
Integrates neuropsychological and educational principles into the ASSESSMENT of, and development
of INTERVENTIONS for children.
The goal of a school neuropsychologist is to provide an optimal learning environment for every child,
including children with SPECIAL NEEDS (but also normal developing children), and facilitates learning
and behavior withing the school and family systems. Often problems arise that the teachers or
parents have difficulty dealing with, then the school neuropsychologist helps.
Embedded in the transdisciplinary science of MIND, BRAIN & EDUCATION.
An emerging discipline (60 years)
1960: First test battery for children, was just an adjustment of the adult test battery.
1980: The behaviorist view was gradually replaced, by a more biological view of behavior.
1990s: decade of the brain.
2000: more and more test batteries for children, to assess their cognitive functioning. Inclusive
education emerged, in the US earlier than in Europe. There was an act that children with special
needs, had the right for education that is adapted for their special needs. In NL: the wet passend
onderwijs.
2020: school neuropsychology still an emerging specialty area. Problems atm neuromyths, these are
misunderstandings about the brain and how they affect learning and behavior.
,Changes in education
19th century: behaviorist approach in act, children had to listen and behave (abacus). If the children
didn’t listen, they were punished. One size fits all method, everyone received the same materials.
20/21th century: in the more developed countries. Technology is included in the classroom. More
differentiating teaching. More room for group work. Learning is regulated by biology, by
developmental stages (constructivist approach). Children at certain stages can and also cannot do
certain tasks (on cognitive, emotional, social, and physical levels). The use of reward schemes is much
more included in current education. And a lot of attention for social safety in classrooms. Children
with special needs are very much included in regular education (inclusive education).
Lefthandedness was seen as a handicap…
“Numerous theories throughout history have claimed that being lefthanded causes developmental
and immune disorders. It has also been said that left-handers die younger, have more diseases and
are even considered inept. None of these theories have been proven”
Now we know that some people have an other lateralisation of the brain, so just more right or left
lateralization.
Special needs problems
26% of mainstream students have special needs. Most common problems:
1. Externalising problem behaviour → behaviours that have a destructive effect on others, e.g.,
aggression, impulsivity, bullying, bizarre or clownesk behaviour.
2. Internalising problem behaviour → behaviour turned more inwards, problem more a
problem to the child him/herself, e.g., test anxiety, problems in self-confidence, bad self-
image, often a target for bullying.
3. Problematic attitudes to work → difficulty concentrating, motivation problems, easily
distracted.
4. Physical disabilities → not very much to do with psychological problems, e.g., motor
problems, or medical problems, illnesses.
5. Speech, language, and numeracy disorders → all have to do with the development of
communication in children, but also with reading and math problems.
6. Being gifted → when education is not adapted to these children, this can cause a lot of
problems for these children. They have special needs.
7. Intellectual impairment → e.g., children with Down Syndrome.
8. Autism Spectrum Disorder → impaired in their social and communicative development.
9. Being behind in literacy/reading and/or numeracy → gaps in the development. Currently due
to the corona pandemic, it is expected that more and more children will be behind in their
development.
,Special needs problems: many relate to ADHD
The four most common special needs are very strongly associated with ADHD. Advises that are
particularly made for children with ADHD, can also be used for children who do not have the
diagnosis of ADHD, but have a lot of overlapping special needs.
,The Integrated CHC/SNP Model
CHC = Cattell-Horn-Carroll → basis in intelligence testing.
SNP = School Neuro Psychology → centers around the development of academic skills in children.
CHC model: measuring intelligence
This model assumes that intelligence can be captured by one single general ability, called the g-
factor. It also assumes that this g-factor can be measured with several broad abilities, that are
cognitive domains. The most known domains are crystalized intelligence and fluid intelligence.
Crystalized intelligence is about knowledge of the world, something that very heavily depends on the
education that someone receives.
Fluid intelligence is more about problems solving, understanding the world, making associations
between things, more like a way of thinking, more inherent to the individual, and less susceptible to
education.
Previous intelligence tests for children, e.g., the earlier versions of the WISC, they had this division in
crystallized and fluid intelligence. E.g., verbal test measuring for crystallized intelligence, and
performance tests more for fluid intelligence. These tests have been adapted, because later on it was
discovered than much more domains contribute to the general g-factor. Now much more domains
have been included. More domains of broad abilities. E.g., the WISC-V has five index scores, that
have been based on five broad abilities.
The idea in this model is that these broad abilities can be tested. You do specific subtests. Together
these subtests measure the different domains.
,The integrated SNP/CHC model
The school neuropsychology model integrates the CHC model in an understandable way.
- Developed by Miller (and later Maricle), authors of the book.
- Uses CHC theory as a basis: “periodic system of human cognitive abilities”. The model
incorporates all the cognitive abilities that humans can possess. However, there are so many
domains, and so many tests, it’s hard to see everything clear. What the SNP model does:
- Integrates CHC functions in a PRACTICAL MODEL for SNP assessment.
- Uses four major classifications of CHC functions, which all relate to academic functioning:
o Basic sensorimotor functions → e.g., motoric functions, and senses.
o Facilitators and inhibitors → e.g., attention processes, working memory.
o Cognitive processes → core processes, such as memory and learning.
o Acquired knowledge → school performance, the outcomes of education.
Acquired knowledge:
The academic achievement of children. Knowledge about the world, development of language
abilities, reading, written language (writing), and mathematics. For schools this is one of the most
important outcomes for the children they educate.
Cognitive processes:
Acquired knowledge can only be obtained with intact cognitive processes. Learning and memory,
visuospatial abilities, auditory abilities and executive functions.
Basic sensorimotor capabilities:
The cognitive processes are not sufficient to obtain all the acquired knowledge. For a good school
performance, the basic sensorimotor capabilities have to be intact. Sensory functions, motor
functions, etc. About the sensori-imput and the motor skills. The way you interact with the world.
Facilitators/inhibitors:
If you would view the model as a machine, then the facilitators and inhibitors would serve as the fuel
and the oil of the machine. Allocating and maintaining attention, working memory, speed and
efficiency of cognitive processing. This is all important for an optimal cognitive processes, and
optimal acquired knowledge in school.
,If you would see the model as a car, then the sensorimotor capabilities would be the wheels, and the
windows, and the steering wheel, and the lights, that allow the car to drive around in the world and
interact with the world. The cognitive processes are in the motor block, the core machinery of the
car, all the parts need to be intact for it to be able to drive. The facilitators and inhibitors are the fuel
and the oil of the car, that make the care drive smoothly.
Of course, the car doesn’t drive in a vacuum. Which is the yellow around the model. The social-
emotional, cultural, and environmental factors. The social environment of the child. E.g., a bumpy
road which is hard to drive on, or a modern highway.
Tools of the school neuropsychologist
- Test batteries (CH7) → to measure cognitive functions in children.
- Educational interventions → the owners of these types of interventions are mostly teachers,
but the school neuropsychologist can give advice about them.
- Neuropsychological interventions → e.g., cognitive training, compensatory strategies.
- Training of parents/teachers → give them knowledge.
Tasks of a school neuropsychologists
- Provide neuropsychological assessment and interpretation services to schools for children
with known or suspected neurological conditions. Based on the neuropsychological
assessment, the psychologist can give advice to parents and teachers.
- Assist in the interpretation of neuropsychological findings from outside consultants or
medical records. Often parents and teachers have a difficult time to read these results and
interpret them.
- Seek to integrate current brain research into educational practice. Psychologists needs to
stay up to date with information from the mind, brain & education science.
- Provide educational interventions that have a basis in the neuropsychological or educational
literature. The psychologist is the person to know if the interventions have a solid base. A
critical view on the interventions.
- Act as a liaison between the school and the medical community for transitional planning for
TBI and other health impaired children and adolescents. To streamline interventions.
- Consult with curriculum specialists in designing approaches to instruction that more
adequately reflects what is known about brain-behavior relationships. More on the policy
site, of making decisions.
- Conduct in-service training for educators and parents about the neuropsychological factors
that relate to common childhood disorders.
- Engage in evidenced-based research to test for the efficacy of neuropsychologically-based
interventions.
- Not all at once, and not all on one day! Tasks that a school neuropsychologist develops over
their entire career.
,To wrap it up
- Young and promising discipline.
- Specialization within School Psychology → so not derived from clinical neuropsychology, but
does use information from clinical neuropsychology.
- Practical model available: integrated CHC-SNP model.
- School neuropsychologist works at the intersection of disciplines. A very interdisciplinary job.
- School neuropsychologist knows how to interpret, use and translate brain research.
Tip!
Watch: 'A typical day of a school psychologist | Interview with a school psychologist: Dr. Charles
Barrett‘ → https://youtu.be/xnT7DrQTAZ8
soft skills of a school psychologist:
- Love children!
- Serving attitude for children and families.
- Listening more than talking.
- Validating needs of others before advising.
BRAIN-BEHAVIOUR RELATIONS IN THE SCHOOL
“Learning requires highly functioning attention and memory systems” – Making Classroom Better
(book)
Disruption through:
- Chemical imbalances → disturbances in the neurotransmission between neurons. E.g., ADHD
is associated with inefficient neurotransmission of dopamine and noradrenaline. But it can
also relate to prolonged stress or hormonal imbalances.
- Disrupted brain structures → e.g., accidents (TBI) or inborn disorders (congenital brain
disorders).
- Poor behavioral habituation → can lead to poorer attention and memory. These children are
less susceptible to e.g., conditioning, inappropriate environments that are not stimulating to
the children.
Together the marked parts
are essential for learning in
the school.
If there are disturbances in
attention and learning and
memory, this will lead to an
academic impairment.
, Behaviours that can lead attention and memory problems
- “Difficulty paying attention for a long period of time.” “Seems to lose place in an academic
task (e.g., reading, writing, math).” “Inattentive to details or makes careless mistakes.” →
disturbances in ATTENTION
- “Forgets where personal items or school work were left.” “Forgets what happens days or
weeks ago.” “Limited knowledge of basic facts for places, events, and people.” →
disturbances in EXECUTIVE FUNCTION
- “Frequently asks for repetitions of instructions/explanations.” “Loses
track of steps/forgets what they are doing amid task.” “Loses place in
the middle of solving a math problem.” → disturbances in MEMORY &
LEARNING
o There is overlap between these domains.
Attention (components)
These components are described in
chapter 14.
Flashlight metaphor of attention:
Selective attention: where the light shines is at the centre of your
attention.
Sustained attention: battery, you need to focus on something. After a while the battery may run out,
so you need a break. Some batteries need more breaks than others, it’s more difficult for them to
sustain attention.
Shifting attention: what are you shining your spotlight at.
Attentional control. With children with ADHD, this can be
problematic, as well as sustained attention.
Working memory (processes)
Central executive if very closely related to shifting
attention/attentional control. It regulates what your attention is
focussed at.
Three fluid systems that keep information active. These systems
are closely related to crystallized systems that have stored
information about the things you see and hear.
Episodic buffer: integrates information across the senses.
Phonological loop: closely related to language.
You cannot speak about THE working memory of a person, because there are so many aspects.
,Atkinson and Shiffrin memory model
- Input: where stimuli enter your senses.
- Sensory memory: where the input is first stored. Decays really fast.
- When you shine your flashlight, your attention, at your sensory memory than you working
memory (in the old version short-term memory) will be activated
- If you don’t do anything with this information, you will forget it. If you don’t pay attention to
what is in your sensory memory, you will also forget it. Forgetting happens really fast.
- Selective attention is very important for storing memories and learning.
- If you pay attention to what is in your short term memory, this is called encoding, this will
then be stored in your long-term memory.
- If you don’t retrieve memories, later on from your long-term memory, so you don’t make
them active in your short-term memory, than the memories will decay/forgetting. If you
don’t retrieve information to short-term memories, long-term memories will decay.
- The process of encoding something, and then retrieving it again from long term memory, is
called rehearsal.
Learning and memory (stages)
Learning and memory is something that happens in stages.
You start with encoding information, you store it, and then you retrieve it. Retrieval
with enhance encoding, etc.
, Several types of memory operating in parallel
There are several types of memory that are operating in parallel.
If we look at long-term memory, we can distinguish between declarative memory and nondeclarative
memory.
- Declarative memory: the memory for facts. The previous model. Things you can explain to
other people.
- Nondeclarative memories: memories that are hard to explain to others. E.g., motor memory,
procedural memories, about certain skills that you have, or habits. It’s hard to explain to
someone e.g., how to walk.
There are different types of nondeclarative memory: priming, classical condition,
habituation/sensitization, procedural memory.
School learning is very much focussed on facts, declarative memory. In schools, maybe we can use
more nondeclarative learning.
“Learning required highly functioning attention and memory
systems.” Working memory plays a central role in this.
Purdy places working memory as the heart of cognitive functions,
that are important and relevant in school settings.
Executive functions, attention and memory, have partly their own
networks and partly overlapping networks. In which working
memory is at the heart of the model.
These functions more or less work together as a trinity, so if
attention is disturbed, this will affect executive functions, it will
affect memory. If working memory is disturbed, it will probably
directly affect all three.
