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Samenvatting Reader Rouwette & Franco (2015)
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[Meer zien]Voorbeeld 3 van de 22 pagina's
Voorbeeld 3 van de 22 pagina's
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Intervention Methodology- Summary Reader Messy ProblemsPart I messy problems and the role of interventions
Chapter 1 the nature of messy problems
- Basic definition of a problem is a discrepancy between the perceived and desired situation or
development.
- One reason why problems are difficult to study in isolation, is that someone confronted with
a problem will take action, sometimes making the situation worse for others.
o Local solutions to a particular problem only generate other problems
- Messy problems also exhibit high levels of uncertainty
The challenges of tackling messy problems
- To increase the changes of alleviating a messy situation, involving key stakeholders is
paramount. Yet involving key stakeholders is in itself a challenge for several reasons
1. Different stakeholders may have different perspectives that lead to partial and biased
interpretations of, and responses, to the situation
2. Stakeholders may have different goals and interest, which can result in conflict
3. The parties involved may have different power sources to deal with the situation.
a. Asymmetries in power may be based on differences in access to expertise,
information, decision making authority or resources.
- Those wishing to change a messy situation do not only need to take into account its systemic
and uncertain properties, but also who are the stakeholders in the situation, their different
perspectives and interest, as well as their power to block, support or modify any proposal for
changing the situation
- How can we maximize the chance of successfully tackling messy situations?
o Two approaches seems possible: individual (e.g. manager or leader sets out course of
action) or group (e.g. stakeholders get together to produce a joint response)
Individual approach to messy problems
- Define the situation in such a way that a solution can be identified and justified
o Defining the situation involves articulating what makes the situation as it is and how it
affects the achievement of goals.
- There is evidence, that individuals generally do not consider all information that is relevant
to a problem situation.
- In addition, a large number of research studies since 1950 have demonstrated that
individuals do not search for solutions that are optimal, in the sense of maximizing benefits
or minimizing costs, but instead are satisfied with solutions that produce ‘good enough’
results.
o Individuals are boundedly rational, and only search for satisficing solutions
- In order to make sense of complex situations, individuals use a number of mental strategies.
o One is to use a frame to understand what is going on.
Frames are structures ways of thinking that simplify and guide our understanding
of reality.
Our frames are selective and affected by expertise and experience, motivation
and context.
, Adopting a frame is usually not a conscious choice. Experience and functional
background influence the development of particular frames, which are then used
automatically.
o Another one is anchoring and adjustment
Typically adjustments are too low so that predictions are too close to an anchor
anchors may be completely unrelated to the task
o Both framing and anchoring and adjustments are examples of heuristics, or rules of
thumb, that individuals use to make sense of situations
The purpose of heuristics is to reduce the effort of processing information when
solving problems or making decisions.
Heuristics works very well in situations that have been encountered before and
where feedback on results of actions has been received, building up a reservoir
of relevant expertise.
in this case it speeds up problem solving and decision making
However, prior experience may not prepare individuals for a messy situation, as
recipes or frames that were successful in the past may no longer apply
In this context, heuristic can lead to bias interpretations and solutions
Heuristics are drawn from a mental structure, known as System 1, based on well-
learned, partially unconscious, parallel processing information.
- If biases are sometimes the result of heuristics, which are grounded in automatic and
unconscious mental processes (system 1), how do we prevent bias?
o We need to spend more effort on processing relevant information.
o System 2, a more developed mental structure that directs our attention to those
activities that require more information processing effort.
This structure uses serial processes and is better able to check the soundness of a
line of argumentation and arrive at novel conclusions.
Unfortunately, system 2 is much slower than system 1 and has limited capacity.
In addition, the transition from system 1 to system 2 is not always ensured, as a
consequence, biases can go unrecognized.
- Within of context of messy problems, biases resulting from the use of heuristic such as
framing can have significant consequences.
- Thus the actions we take to tackle situations follow logically from how we frame the
situation. How do we know if we are using the right frame?
o First step is to focus our information processing effort on becoming aware of the frame
we are using.
o Second step is to recognize any mismatch between frame and situation. If a frame is
not appropriate for the problem we are faced, we need to become aware.
- One of the hallmarks of excellent leaders and managers is their ability to use the right frame
to understand and tackle messy situations
- The reason why some situations appear as a big mess to those concerned, has to do with the
previous description of heuristics, biases and group process.
Group approach to messy problems
- Messy situations typically require novel ways of thinking and action because old recipes are
not longer active. In such context, a diverse group of stakeholders, each one possessing
relevant knowledge, experience, or decision making authority is brought together to find a
way forward.
, - The expected benefit of brining people from different organisations together is that the
difference in a group member’s view, interest and knowledge about the problem would
become a valuable asset, enabling them to develop a shared understanding about the
problem before they reach agreement on how to act.
- Research has shown that most groups fail to live up to expectations even for simple
problems.
- If groups cannot deal effectively with simple problems such as the hidden profile task, what
can we expect for complex problems?
o If an appropriate solution is to be found for these complex problems, groups must
process information in more depth than in simple tasks.
Groups that are accountable for their decisions, have appropriate time available,
do not work under pressure and whose members have different preferences are
more likely to process information in depth.
Deep processing of information is essential to tackle complex problems, let alone
messy problems.
o It is however not the whole story, as we need to take into account what group
members aim to get out of the problem solving effort.
- Deep processing of information needs to be supported by behaviours that maintain group
relations.
- Group decision process is not just about gathering facts and making cold judgements on how
to solve the best problem.
- When conflicts on content develop, there is a danger that these do not remain only cognitive
in nature but deteriorate into interpersonal, emotional conflict.
- Stress is linked to attention
o At very low or high levels, attention is limited and people focus only on the most
important aspects of the task.
o What does this mean for group decision?
One consequence is that if emotions run high, stress will focus attention to the
best learned routines, ignoring all other aspects.
In extreme stress, finding a good solution is replaced by attempting to win the
argument.
Procrastination is postponing any action to change the situation.
- Group processes involving stress, shared responsibilities, group norms, roles and
communication add to the complexity of decision over and above individual heuristics and
biases.
Chapter 2 intervening in messy problems
Out with the old, or the limited effectiveness of traditional decision making processes
- There if evidence on the degree of effectiveness of different decision making approaches,
both by leaders and teams.
- The individual approach based on a single person taking decisions are among the
unsuccessful tactics.
o The persuasion tactic involves the leader collecting arguments In favour of a preferred
course of action, and looking for other stakeholders who support this view.
Idea is that if argument were convincing to leader/manager, these should also be
convincing to others
o Edict tactics are the most frequently used and the least successful. An edict is a
directive, that is circulated within the organisation explaining a new policy.
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