PolEU summary of the readings 2021 – Jim Hiddink
Chapter 2 – the post-war transformation of western Europe
o Forces of division within Europe
Language
Religion
Protestant vs catholic
Cultural traditions
Historical experiences
o Until after second world war, rivalry and distrust governed the relationships
between most of the states in Western Europe
o Interbellum
Characterized by particularly sharp and fluid inter-state relations
No stable alliance system
No clear balance of power
Many multilateral and bilateral treaties, however little overall pattern to
them, and few had lasting effects
League of nations
Failed for three reasons
o Aims were vague and were interpreted in different ways
o It was intergovernmental in its structure and therefore
dependent on the agreement of all member states before
action could be taken
o The states wanted different things from it
o Post WWII European transformation’s three principal aspects
Unbroken peace
“major transformation … has occurred in the political consciousness
of Europeans, something which is completely new in their history.
For centuries, neighbouring countries were seen as potential
enemies against whom it was necessary to be on one’s guard and
ready to fight. Now, after the end of the most terrible of wars in
Europe, these neighbours are perceived as friendly nations sharing a
common destiny. (Spinelli, 1986: xiii)”
Communism was the new collective threat, leading to collective
battling it through means such as the NATO
Transformed agenda
Transition from high policy to low policy
o Shift from power politics to issues of wealth and welfare of
citizens
New channels and processes
Ministries of foreign affairs and embasies decreased in importance
Increase in written communications, telephone conversations,
electronically transmitted messages, and bilateral and multilateral
meetings
o Hallstein on cultural Europe:
Europe is no creation. It is a rediscovery. The main difference between the
formation of the United States of Europe and that of the United States of
, America is not that America did not have to merge a number of firmly
established nation states, but that for more than a thousand years the idea
of a unified Europe was never quite forgotten … [The advocates of a
European federation] know that Europe shares a sense of values: of what is
good and bad; of what a man’s rights should be and what are his duties; of
how society should be ordered; of what is happiness and what disaster.
Europe shares many things: its memories that we call history; achievements
it can take pride in and events that are shameful; its joys and its sufferings;
and not least its tomorrows. (Hallstein, 1972: 15 and 16)
Idealistic interpretation no longer finds much favour
However, in economic terms, pan-european integration had great effect
Pollard - “Europe’s industrialisation proceeded relatively smoothly,
among other reasons, precisely because it took place within what
was in many essentials a single integrated economy, with a fair
amount of movement for labour, a greater amount of freedom for
the movement of goods, and the greatest freedom of all for the
movement of technology, know-how and capital. (Pollard, 1981: 38–
9)”
This ceased to be so in
o the last quarter of the 19th century, as protectionism gave
rise.
o (inter)bellum
o The european historical experience emphasizes that although industrialisation and
economic liberalisation provide potential bases for the furtherance of
interconnections, agreements, and harmonious relations between states, they do
not ensure them
o Impact of WWII
Political factors
Combating nationalism
o May 1948, The Hague, 750 prominent Europeans came
together to discuss an European political and economic
union in the Council of Europe
New political map of Europe
o Second world war was to result in a fundamental redrawing
of the political map of Europe
o Iron curtain
o Determination to preserve Western Europe from
communism
o Truman doctrine
o Marshall plan
New international power balance
o Unification in international stance
German problem
o Due to heightened “agression” in the 19 th and 20th century,
innate response was to “contain” Germany
o Split of Germany => heightened threat from the soviets
, o Leads to proposal to liberate Germany, seeing ass
belittlement only had adverse effects in the past
o West Germany was thus given more power and actively
combatted the communist approach
Economic factors
Bretton Woods conference – 1944
o Representatives of 44 countries
o Foundation of the IMF & World Bank
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
o Purpose to facilitate trade through the lowering of
international trade barriers
Organisation for Western European Economic Cooperation (OEEC)
1948
o Created with impetus of the Marshall plan
o Tasked with the management of the US aid, encouraging
joint economic policies, and discourage barriers to trade
o Gave way to the OECD
European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) 1951
o Worked partly supranational on certain matters, as they
could take measures without all states having to agree
o Interdependence in modern times
Economic interdependence has arisen from three features of post-1945
world
Enormously increased volume of world trade
Internationalisation of production due to MNC’s
Fluctuations and uncertainties associated with currency exchange
rates and international monetary arrangements
Single European Market (SEM) programme
o Rooted in the belief that the dismantlement of trade
barriers between Western European states would further
their economic efficiency and prosperity
Economic and Monetary Union
o Late 1980s
o Thought to be necessary for the completion of the SEM
programme
From the 1970’s, policy on data, television, drug trafficking, etc. Were also
discussed by the EC
o Reasons to be critical about the European integration
Often disarray between states on how to handle issues and what values
should be central
Power-struggles within the EU (France-Germany etc.)
Issue of the diminishing importance of the state within the EU
internationally
o Reasons for the founding members to enter the EU-to-be
Benelux
Vulnerability to hostile and more powerful neighbours
The need to be on good terms with West Germany and France
, Small size meant that only way to assert influence was through
more unified inter-state system
Economically Benelux already had treaties, to be furthered in the
EU-to-be
Italy
European Integration offered the prospect of a new start and form a
basis of respectability
Anti-communist stance of united Europe offered support against a
communist insurgence of Italy
Economic support since Italy was facing Economic backlash
France
Containment of Germany
Rapid economic growth
Germany
Self-respect could be regained
Establishment of itself in the international community
Economic growth
Fight against the communist east
Chapter 3
o Leaders on the foundation of the ECSC
“Europe will not be made all at once, or according to a single plan. It will be
built through concrete achievements which first create a de facto solidarity.
(The Schuman Declaration is reproduced in Salmon and Nicoll, 1997: 44–6)”
“The Schuman proposals provide a basis for the building of a new Europe
through the concrete achievement of a supranational regime within a
limited but controlling area of economic effort … The indispensable first
principle of these proposals is the abnegation of sovereignty in a limited but
decisive field. (Monnet, 1978: 316)”
“Let me make a point of declaring in so many words and in full agreement,
not only with the French Government but also with M. Jean Monnet, that
the importance of this project is above all political and not economic.
(Quoted in ibid.: 319–20)” Konrad Adenauer, Germany
o Ways in which the ECSC broke new ground
Its policy aims were extremely ambitious, entailing not just the creation of a
free trade area but also laying the foundations for a common market in what
at the time ere some of the basic materials of any industrialized society.
Would ensure orderly supplies to all member states, produce a
rational expansion and modernisation of production, and improve
the conditions and lifestyles of those working in the industries in
question
It was the first of European-inter-state organisations to possess significant
supranational characteristics.
To be found in the new central institutions, which had the power to
make and oversee laws in important areas such as
o the abolition and prohibition of internal tariff barriers, of
state subsidies, and of restrictive practices
o the harmonisation of external commercial policy
, o imposing levies on coal and steel production to finance the
ECSC’s activities
o However, in the first test of the supranational power in crisis, it failed
Coal crisis lead to a every man for himself stance per state, ignoring the
higher authority
o Failed due to decreasing importance of coal and steel
o From the ECSC to the ECC
EDC (European Defence Community)
Come to be to facilitate the rearmament of West Germany
Proposed by France
Ultimately rejected
o Due to
Unease about German rearmament
Concern that the French government would not
have sole control of its military forces
Doubt about the effiency of an integrated force
Disquiet that the strongest European military power
was not participating (UK)
A feeling that with the end of the Korean War and
the death of Stalin the EDC was not as necessary as
it had seemed when it was first proposed
Revival of the Brussels Treaty
“for collaboration in economic, social and cultural matters and for
collective defence”
Signed by Benelux, France, UK, and in 1954, West Germany and Italy
Put into the West European Union (WEU, 1955)
o Loosely structured
o Essentially consultative
o Primarily defence-orientated
o Made West Germany a Nato member
Establishment of the European Economic Community & the Eruopean
Atomic Energy Community (EEC & Euratom)
Initially, Belgian foreign minister Paul-Henri Spaak drafted a
resolution on further economic integration
Gave way to the Treaties of Rome
o These in turn founded the organisations
EEC
Set out reasonably clear rules on trade
o Only guiding principles for social and agricultural policy
France was cautious of Germany benefitting, so demanded some
measures to benefit France.
o Namely
Insisting on special protection for agriculture
Pressing the case of an atomic energy community
Seeking privileged relations with the six for France’s
overseas dependencies
, Treaties signed on 25 march 1957
o Minor ratification opposition in France and Italy by the
communist block
Policy guidelines concerned with the establishment of a common
market
o The removal of all tariffs and quantitative restrictions on
internal trade. This would make the Community a free trade
area
o The erection of a Common External Tariff (CET). This would
mean that goods entering the Community would do so on
the same basis no matter what their point of entry. No
member state would therefore be in a position to gain a
competitive advantage by, say, reducing its external tariffs
on vital raw materials. The CET would take the Community
beyond a mere free trade area and make it a customs union.
It would also serve as the basis for the development of a
common external trade policy – known as the Common
Commercial Policy (CCP).
o The prohibition of a range of practices having as their effect
the distortion or prevention of competition between the
member states.
o Measures to promote not only the free movement of goods
between the member states but also the free movement of
persons, services, and capital.
Guided by clear philosophy or ideology
o Free-market, liberal, non-interventionist capitalism
Market mechanism and need to prevent
abuses to competition were accorded a high
priority
However, few references to ways in which
joint activities and interventions should be
promoted for non-market-based purposes
Competition itself was seen as requiring
considerable intervention and management from
the centre
There were provisions for non-market policies
common policy for agriculture was given a
special place in the traty precisely because
of fears of what would happen should
agriculture be exposed to a totally free
market
Social policy, which was intended to help
soften unacceptable market consequences
Because Treaty was highly dependent on the future
cooperation of the member states for successful
policy development, there was never any question
of an immediate abandonment of national
, economic controls and of a remorseless and
inevitable drive towards uninhibited free-market
capitalism
Chapter 4
o Integration
Widening
Enlarging the included entities
Deepening
Furthering the level of integration of already present entities
o Relaunch of European integration
Milan Summit & the SEA
Creation of two stage legislative procedure
o Maastricht treaty 1992
Built further on the SEA
Two main effects
Created new organisation of the EU based on three pillars (to
preserve different decision-makings in different policies)
o European Communities
o Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)
o Cooperation in the Fields of Justice and Home Affairs (JHA)
Furthered policy and institutional deepening
o Former by laying down a procedure and a timetable for
moving to Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) with a
single currency
o Latter by further extending provision for QMV in the Council
and by creating a new legislative procedure which gave the
EP power of veto over some legislative proposals
o Amsterdam treaty 1997
Strenghtened the EU’s decision-making capacity in certain JHA spheres
Extended the co-decision procedure to more policy spheres
virtually abolished the cooperation procedure.
o Nice treaty 2001
Task was to make changes in the composition of the EU's institutions and in
the voting strengths and voting procedures in the Council so as to enable the
EU to absorb applicant states, whilst at the same time not undermining the
capacity of the EU to function in a tolerably efficient manner
o Lisbon treaty 2007
Provisions for a new position of European Council President
Provisions for a more united and identifiable position
High representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security
Policy
Foundations lie in the 2000 Nice summit & 2001 Laeken summit
Plan was set up for a treaty for 2004, but due to the inclusion of the
word “constitutional”, this was met with opposition, and the treaty
failed in ratifying itself.
, Thereafter the 2007 Lisbon treaty was given shape, which took
effect in December 2009 due to a temporary referendum-block of
the Irish
o Five edits to the post-1980s status quo of the EU
The relationships between the four institutions have altered in a number of
ways
As integration evolved, all of the institutions have extended their
interests and simultaneously become increasingly less
compartmentalised and less self-contained within the EU system
o Lead to blurring of responsibilities as the task division
became more unclear and to changes in the power of and
the balance between institutions, as there has emerged a
more general sharing of powers.
Increasing range of participants not associated with the four main
institutions have become involved in policy-making and decision-making
Heads of government
o Have come to assume key agenda-setting and decision-
taking responsibilities that have had the effect of reducing
the power and manoeuvrability of both the Council of
Ministers and the Commission through the European
Council
Policy processes have become more varied and complex as they have come
to function in many different ways at many different levels
New mosaic of less formal channels in which representatives of the
institutions, states and interests meet and interact to discuss and
produce policies and decisions.
Policy processes have become more efficient and democratic
More efficient
o Treaty reforms have made it possible for an increasing
number of Council decisions to be taken by QMV rather
than requiring unanimity
More democratic
o The EP (only directly elected body) has become more
influential
Policy processes have become more supranational in character
Many types of decisions still require unanimity
However, many key and binding decisions can be taken without all
member states giving their explicit approval
o Development of new policy areas
Internal market / SEM (single European market)
Policies designed to
o promote the free movement of goods, services, capital, and
people between member states
o Enable the EU to act jointly and present a common front in
its economic and trading relations with third countries
EU developed policies with direct implications for the operation of
the market in pure form
, o Establishment of essential conditions for product standards
and their testing and certification
o Liberalisation of national economies, including opening up
to competition national monopolies and protected
industries in such spheres as energy, transport and
telecommunications
o Laying down of criteria that companies must satisfy if they
wish to trade in the EU market
o Controlling the circumstances in which governments can
and cannot subsidise domestic industries
Impure market measures
o Employment
o Environment
o Consumer protection
o Working conditions
EMU conditions / convergence criteria that countries would have to
meet if they were to become members of the single currency
system
Low rates of inflation
Low interest rates
Avoidance of excessive budgetary and national debt
deficits
Currency stability
o Designed to ensure that the single currency zone would be
based on sound foundations
o Same conditions were used as basis for the development of
the Stability and Growth Pact (SGP)
Framework for national economic and monetary
policies within the single currency zone designed to
ensure that the stability would not be threatened by
national imbalances or irresponsible national
policies
o Starting January 1999, member states fixed their exchange
rates
Denmark, Sweden, and the UK decided not to join
Greece was unable to meet the criteria
However, in 2001, they were allowed to
take part as well
After 2001, all new EU-joining countries were
required to take part in the EURO after a 2 year
period of meeting the criteria
o EMU proved to be weakly prepared for economic crises,
after which additional measures were taken, especially on
initiative of Germany
Other policies
, Low budget percentage of the total European GDP (1%) both a
consequence of and a reason for the nature of the EU’s policy
portfolio
o Reasons
Many of the policies that the EU has developed are
essentially regulatory in character
Involve laying down rules on all sorts of
things that do not require much direct EU
expenditure, though they do often require
considerable expenditure by public and
private bodies in the member states
EU has always had very limited involvement with
policy areas that account for the bulk of public
expenditure (social welfare, education, health, and
defence). These are essentially national
responsibilities
o Exception
Agriculture
Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has
imposed heavy burdens on the EU’s annual
budget (40%)
In order to compensate for the CAP, two main
cohesion funds
European Regional Development Fund
(ERDF)
European Social Fund (ESF)
Also more funding has been channelled to research,
energy, and employment promotion policies.
Non economic issues
o Foreign and security policy
o Defence policy
o JHA policy
Chapter 5 - Enlargement of the EU
o Enlargement via Enlargement Rounds
First enlargement round 1973
Denmark, Ireland, and the UK
Broadened integration out from its founding base, by
o granting accession to a large state with the potential to
disrupt the then virtually established Franco-German
informal leadership of the community
o Bringing in two states, Denmark and the UK, that over the
years have been firmly in the Euro-cautious camp on
integrationist matters
