Summary of the material for the final exam (2022) for Politics of the European Union. INCLUDES
notes from (Total: 53 pages):
● Neill Nugent’s book (8th edition, 2017) “The Government and Politics of the European Union”,
chapters 2-5, 9-12, 18, 19, 22 and 24.
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Politics of the European Union Notes on Readings
Table of Contents
“The Government and Politics of the European Union” 2
Chapter 2: The Post-War Transformation of Western Europe 2
Chapter 3: The Creation of the European Community 6
Chapter 4: The Deepening of the Integration Process 9
Chapter 5: The Widening of the Integration Process 10
Chapter 9: The Commission 15
Chapter 10: The Council of the European Union 21
Chapter 11: The European Council 26
Chapter 12: The European Parliament 30
Chapter 18: Policy Processes 36
Chapter 19: Making and Applying EU Legislation 40
Chapter 22: External Policies 44
Chapter 24: Conceptualising the EU 51
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“The Government and Politics of the European Union”
Chapter 2: The Post-War Transformation of Western Europe
European integration developed in Western Europe → Central and Eastern Europe (Communism’s
collapse).
Historical Divisions
European history = characterised by tensions/conflicts → different state formations:
1. Language: lack of ability to converse until recently.
2. Religion: (most) northwestern countries = Protestant, (most) southern countries = Catholic.
3. Contrasting cultural traditions and historical experiences (distinct identifications).
4. Political: varying systems of government + competing ideological orientations.
➔ Autocracies vs. liberal, parliamentary democracies (mid-1970s).
5. Economic: gradual competition (early 20th century) for overseas markets.
These divisions ensured that until World War II (WWII) states’ relationships = rivalries + distrust.
During the interwar period, cooperative relationships between Western European states were:
● Different (little pattern in any bilateral/multilateral treaties).
● Sudden (unpredictable with rising tensions).
There were few advances for greater cooperation.
➔ International climate = national rivalries, clashing interests, biased views (specific national
purposes in mind).
➔ E.g. the 1919 League of Nations (LoN):
◆ Was dominated by Europeans and had some potential as a forum for
understanding/improving relationships between European States.
◆ HOWEVER, it failed due to:
1. Vague aims (interpreted in different possible ways).
2. Its intergovernmental structure (dependent on all-state agreement).
3. Different state aims (preserving the Versailles status quo vs. changing the
settlement).
The Post-War Transformation
Three different aspects of Western European state relations:
1. Unbroken peace (since 1945); transformation from hostile to friendly relations.
➔ Military conflict = irrelevant to the resolution of differences.
➔ Shared views on ‘friends’ vs. potential ‘enemies’:
◆ Initially communism in the 1980s/90s
◆ Development of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO).
◆ Main security concerns today (Russian assertiveness, post-Soviet/Middle Eastern
national/ethnic tensions, the threat of international terrorism).
2. A transformed agenda: Greater variety of discussed/negotiated subjects.
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➔ International agendas have become:
◆ Less focused on ‘high policy’ issues (the existence/preservation of the state).
◆ More involved with ‘low policy’ issues (wealth and welfare of populations).
➔ Transformation timeline:
◆ Followed quickly after WWII.
◆ Mid-1950s Western European representatives (European Communities) engaged in
detailed negotiations on policy matters (mainly economic).
◆ 1970s intensified representation of new topics in the European Community (EC).
3. New channels and processes:
● Diverse international agenda → gradual transformation in state interrelations.
○ Involvement of political/administrative systems in external relations management.
○ Ranging from ad hoc/informal → regularised/highly-structured.
● Changing forms of inter-state communication. Timeline:
○ 1940s increasing policy contact between Western European governments.
○ 1950s establishment of ECs (member state representatives became enmeshed in
daily collective institutions and policy-making processes).
○ 1958 European Economic Community (EEC) broadened its policy portfolio.
○ 1970s greater geographic spread.
Transformation Explanation
Four approaches to explain post-war Western European cooperation/integration:
1. The deep roots of European integration.
➔ Argument that Europe = unique/identifiable entity based on inter-relationships between
geography and other developments (economic, social, etc..).
◆ HOWEVER, this is controversial (divisions > identity of shared values).
➔ Highlighting importance of European integration:
◆ 18th-century inter-state relations (understandings between major powers)
foreshadowing the post-1945 peace-endured developments. HOWEVER, this:
● Overstates the peace during the 1800s.
● Exaggerates the amount of state cooperation (e.g. the Concert of Nations).
◆ Increasing inter-state cooperation due to:
● National economic (industrialisation)/political integration between states →
nationalism and grand ideas of the sovereign state.
● Increasing interconnectedness = technological change/economic advance.
◆ HOWEVER, from the late 1800s, many states:
● Followed economic protectionism.
● Developed national identities = new political tensions.
● Economic linkages did NOT prevent or restrain World War I (WWI) or WWII.
2. The impact of WWII, caused by:
● Political factors:
1. Combating Nationalism: Realisation that nationalism = a recipe for war. This led to:
a. More powerful body → 1944 establishment of the United Nations (UN).
b. Specific European arrangements (advocated by Resistance movements).
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c. Widely shared optimism about European state collaboration (1949 Statute
of the Council of Europe).
➔ Statute proved to be a disappointment (vague, intergovernmental
decision-making structure, uninterested members).
➔ Useful functions in the sphere of human rights (European
Convention of Human Rights + as a forum for discussion.
2. The New Political Map of Europe: Fundamental redrawing following WWII:
a. The division of Germany in two.
b. An ‘Iron Curtain’ between East (Soviet Communist zone) and West.
➔ The determination to preserve Western Europe from Communism
(backed strongly by the United States - US):
◆ 1947 Truman Doctrine: Political guarantee.
◆ 1948 Marshall Aid: Economic assistance.
◆ The foundation of NATO (US military protection).
c. Liberal democratic systems establishment, similar political ideas everywhere
(US aid actively sought → integrationist pressures developments).
3. The New International Power Balance: Promoted a sense that Western Europe =
identifiable political entity. Caused by:
a. The division of Europe.
b. Transition from inter-European state relations to US-Soviet relations.
c. The start of the Cold War (1947/48).
4. The German Problem: Post-war reconstruction and decisions whether to:
a. Contain Germany (interim division in zones between East and West →
already failed between the wars).
b. Follow a conciliatory approach → Soviet Union (USSR) = perceived principal
threat, to avoid a political vacuum in West Germany, use its power/wealth to
build a European defence (US pressures).
● Economic factors (new international economic/financial arrangements):
○ WWII divided the European continent, limited participation of Central/Eastern
European countries.
➔ War created new realities/changed attitudes.
○ 1994 Bretton Woods Conference: 44 countries agreed to establish two new bodies:
■ The International Monetary Fund (IMF): Alleviate currency instability by
allowing countries with temporary payment difficulties to have access to
short-term credit facilities.
■ The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (the World
Bank): Provide long-term loans for major investments.
○ 1947 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade: Negotiated between 23 countries to
facilitate trade through the lowering of international barriers.
○ In 1947/48, the post-war economic recovery was hit by a balance of payment
deficits + dollar shortages.
➔ Created a focus on specifically Western European-based economic
initiatives/organisations.
➔ The US’ economic aid through the European Recovery Programme (Marshall
Aid) to promote greater economic cooperation.
