Concept Important person
Chapter 1 – Sexuality in Perspective
Why study sex?
➔ Curiosity as sex is somewhat taboo in our culture
➔ Practicality as sex is important in many people’s lives
➔ Knowing about how to deal with sexual problems
Sex and Gender
Sex = sexual anatomy and sexual behavior. Gender = being male, female, or other (i.e. trans)
Gender binary = conceptualizing gender as having only two categories (male and female)
Sexual behavior = behavior that produces arousal and increases the chance of orgasm
The history of Understanding sexuality: religion and Science
Religion
Throughout history, religion (and rumor) provided most of the information that people had about
sexuality. In ancient Greece, sexual orientation and sexual desire was understood through mythology:
original humans were double beings (double males, double females, half male half female). The gods split
these in half, of which heterosexuals and homosexuals resulted that continued to search forever for their
missing half. Fifteenth-century Christians considered people that had wet dreams guilty of sodomy and
witchcraft. Muslims have believed that sexual intercourse is one of the finest pleasures of life (though the
teachings of the Koran vary per country).
Science
The scientific study of sex began in the 19th century (Victorian era), though before these numerous
findings had already occurred (e.g. sperm swimming in human semen, the fertilization of the egg by
sperm in sea urchins). Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was very influential (see chapter 2). In the late
1800s the Victorian norms about sexuality were very rigid and oppressive (there were even devices to
prevent masturbation), however there was a wide discrepancy between these sexual norms and actual
behavior which resulted in a lot of personal tension that became fuel for Freud his studies.
Forerunner of modern sex research: Henry Havelok Ellis (1959-1939). He published a rather objective
series of volumes titled Studies in the Psychology of Sex (1896). He believed that sexual deviations from the
norm are often harmless and should be accepted by society.
The psychiatrist Richard von Krafft-Ebing (1840-1902) had an interest in “pathological sexuality”,
which resulted in the book Psychopathia Sexualis in which he coined the concepts of sadism, masochism,
and pedophilia. The terms heterosexuality and homosexuality originated from the translation of his book
in English in 1892.
The German Magnus Hirschfeld (1868-1935) founded the first sex research institute and administered
the first large scale sex survey (10.000 people), of which most of the data was sadly destroyed by the
Nazis. He also established the first ‘sex journal’, a marriage council service, worked for legal reforms and
gave advice on contraception and sex problems. He also introduced the term transvestite (he himself was
both homosexual and a transvestite).
In the 20th century, Alfred Kinsley and his colleagues conducted surveys of human sexual behavior and
Masters and Johnson investigated sexual disorders and the physiology of sexual responses. Margeret
Mead and Bronislaw Malinowski collected data on sexual behaviors in other cultures. Thus, by the
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1990s, major, well-conducted sex surveys were available. Sexology nowadays tends to be an
interdisciplinary field (biology, psychology, sociology, anthropology, and physiology).
The Media
Today, the mass-media carry extensive portrayals of sexuality and are a powerful influence on most
people’s understanding of sexuality. The mass media may have an influence through:
➔ Cultivation theory = the view that exposure to the mass media makes people think that what
they see there represents the mainstream of what really occurs
➔ Framing theory = the theory that the media draw attention to certain topics and not to others,
suggesting that we should think about or frame the issues
➔ Social cognitive theory (social learning) = the idea that the media provide role models whom
we imitate (see chapter 2)
➔ Reinforcing spiral theory = a theory that one’s social identities and ideologies predict one’s
media use and, in turn, media use affects our identity and beliefs
Other important concepts:
Selectivity = the principle that people select and pay attention only to certain media and ignore others
(not the same as the framing theory!). And differential susceptibility model = some people are more
susceptible than others to certain types of media
Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Sexuality
Culture = the part of the environment created by humans, including the set of meanings that a group
adopts; these meanings (1) facilitate social coordination, (2) clarify where boundaries between groups
lie, and (3) make life seem predictable. Cultures tend to have one of three main themes:
1. Individual cultures = those that stress independence and autonomy and the individual rights of
people
2. Collectivistic cultures = those that emphasize interdependence and connections among people,
the group is more important than the individual.
3. Honor cultures = those that stress “face”, that is, individuals’ reputation and the respect or
honor that people show toward others.
Ethnocentrism = the tendency to regard one’s own ethnic group and culture as superior to others and to
believe that its customs and way of life are the standards by which other cultures should be judged.
Ethnocentrism tends to influence our understanding of human sexual behavior.
All societies regulate sexual behavior in some way, though the exact regulations vary a lot from one
culture to the next. Sex seems to be regulated in all cultures (e.g. incest taboos are nearly universal, and
most societies condemn forced sexual relations).
The ‘romantic’ kiss is not found in all societies. There is also variation in techniques of kissing. Cunnilingus
(oral stimulation of female genitals) occurs in societies, especially in the south specific. Inflicting pain on
the partner is common in some societies. The frequency of intercourse for married couples varies
considerably (from 5 times per day to once every month). Most societies have restrictions that forbid
intercourse at certain times or in certain situations (e.g. postpartum sex taboo).
Attitudes toward masturbation (sexual self-stimulation of the genitals) vary widely. Almost all human
societies express some disapproval of adult masturbation, however at least some adults in all societies
appear to practice it. Female masturbation occurs in other societies.
Societies differ considerably in their rules regarding premarital sex (from removing a girl’s clitoris in
order to decease sexual pleasure to having many lovers). Extramarital sex is complex and conflicted for
most cultures. Even when extramarital sex is permitted, it is subjected to regulations (e.g. only husbands
are allowed extramarital sex).
There is wide variation in attitudes toward homosexuality and in same-gender sexual behavior, but two
general rules seem to emerge: (1) same-gender sexuality is found universally in all societies (or nearly
universal), (2) same-gender sexual behavior is never the predominant form of sexual behavior for adults
in any of the societies studied.
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In all human societies, physical characteristics are important in determining whom one chooses as a sex
partner. However, what is considered attractive, varies considerably in various societies. For example,
among the Nawa women of Africa, elongated labia majora (the pads of fat on either side of the vaginal
opening) are considered a mark of beauty and are quite prominent. One standard does seem to be a
general rule: a poor complexion is almost always considered unattractive.
There are also large variations in sexual behavior within our culture. Some of these can be classified as
social-class differences (e.g. the more educated, the more likely to use the pill and vice versa) and some as
ethnic differences. One social class similarity is the percentage of first marriages for men that are still intact
after 20 years (50%). As for ethnic differences it’s important to realize that the sexuality of a group can
only be understood by understanding both the cultural heritage and its current social and economic
conditions (and of course there are also ethnic similarities!).
- African Americans
Sexuality is influenced by the legacies of the Victorian era and the influence of the Judeo-Christian
tradition, but also: (1) the African heritage, (2) history of slavery, and (3) current economic social
conditions. Variations of origin and social class are reflected in sexual attitudes. The marriage
rate is lower for African Americans than for other groups, as (1) there is not an equal gender
ratio among Blacks (84 men per 100 women), (2) men encounter obstacles in seeking and
maintaining a job that can support a family. There’s been a decline in the Black working class and
an increase in the Black underclass.
- Latinos/Latinx
In traditional Latin American cultures, gender roles are sharply defined. Machismo means
“maleness” or “virility”. The man must be responsible for the well-being and honor of his family,
but it can also mean tolerating men’s sexual infidelities. Marianismo: motherhood is highly valued
and virginity until marriage is closely guarded. Familismo: a strong cultural valuing of one’s
nuclear and extended family.
- Asian Americans
Traditional Asian cultures, such as the Chinese, have been repressive about sexuality. Core values
about sexuality: (1) collectivism (other’s needs should be considered before one’s own), (2)
conformity to norms (shame and the threat of loss of face shape behavior), (3) emotional control
(includes emotions such as love or passion).
- American Indians
Although traditional American Indian cultures had strict courtship rules that regulated
premarital sex, today there’s great pressure in the youth culture to have sex.
Racial microaggressions are subtle insults directed at people of color, often done nonconsciously.
Cross-cultural studies are important for two reasons: (1) they give us a notion of the variety that exists in
human sexual behavior, and they put our own standards and behavior in perspective. (2) they provide
evidence that culture and learning shapes our sexual behavior (not just biology/instincts).
Cross-Species Perspectives on Sexuality
Male and female masturbation is found in many species (e.g. monkeys, apes, and porcupines), as is same-
gender sexual behavior (e.g. giraffes, sheep, and primates). Our basic mammalian heritage is bisexual,
composed of both heterosexual and homosexual elements. Female primates engage in sexual signaling to
males (flirting!).
Sexual behavior seems to be more hormonally (instinctively) controlled among lower species (i.e. fish or
rodents) and more by the brain (learning and social context) in higher species (i.e. primates).
Environmental influences are more important in shaping primate-especially human-sexual behavior than
in shaping those of other species. Also, interestingly, the sexual behavior of human females is not nearly
as much under hormonal control (only engaging in sexual behavior during estrus) as that of females of
other species. Besides humans, rhesus macaques also seem to have orgasms.
Both humans and animals can use sex for a variety of nonsexual purposes (i.e. expressing dominance, or
phallic aggression).
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