Samenvatting
Research & Skills for MSc BA, Summary
Summary of the mandatory, articles, and lectures, with important figures, all divided per week.
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Summary Research & Skills for MSc BA – 16-11-2021WEEK 1
Lecture 1a: Theory Building
Theory is the answer to queries of why. Theory is about the connections among phenomena, a story
about why acts, events, structure, and thoughts occur, and the nature of causal relationships identifying
what comes first as well as the timing of such events. Theory is the description (what, how) and the
explanation (why) of the social phenomena of interest, as well as their generalizability (who, where,
when).
Are references theory?
A theory is a rational type of abstract thinking about a phenomenon, or the results of such thinking,
according to Wikipedia. But listing references to existing theories or mentioning the names of theories
is not theory. You need to make arguments by explaining and linking concepts and causal logic from
references.
Are data theory?
Prior findings cannot by themselves motivate hypotheses, and the reporting of results cannot substitute
for logical reasoning. You need to explain the logical reasons why particular findings occurred in the
past or why certain empirical relationships are expected in the future.
Are constructs/variables theory?
Constructs or variables are important parts of theory but do not, alone, constitute theory, because
simply listing a set of antecedents does not make a theoretical argument. You need to explain why
these constructs or variables come about and why they are connected.
Are diagrams theory?
Diagrams or research models (boxes and arrows) can be a valuable part of theory but also, by
themselves, rarely constitute theory, because they rarely explain why the proposed connections will be
observed. The logic underlying the portrayed relationships needs to be spelled out; verbal explanation
about the reasons why a phenomenon occurs or why it unfolds in a particular manner cannot be replaced
by a diagram.
Are hypotheses/predictions theory?
Hypotheses are important parts of theory as crucial bridges between theory and data by making
explicit how the variables and relationships will be operationalized; hypotheses presented without
underlying causal logic do not constitute theory. Hypotheses are concise statements about what is
expected to occur, not why it is expected to occur, and therefore do not contain logical arguments about
why empirical relationships are expected to occur.
A strong and complete theory contains four essential elements (Whetten, 1989):
- What: what factors (concepts, constructs, variables) should be logically considered as part of the
explanation of the social phenomena of interest? (completeness vs. parsimony).
- How: how are these factors related? (causality).
- Why: what are the underlying social mechanisms and dynamics that justify the selection of factors
and the proposed causal relationships? (logic/rationale).
- Who, Where, When: what are the conditions placing the limits and boundaries of generalizability?
(context).
Ways of thinking for theory building:
- Observational thinking based on practice. Inductive thinking: observation leads to theory
formation: developing a theory. More common: Qualitative approach.
, - Conceptual thinking based on literature or logic. Deductive thinking: analysis of data leads to
testing of theory. Literature & Logical reasoning. More common: Quantitative approach
- Analytical thinking based on model. Deductive thinking: analysis leads to ‘proof’ of theory.
Mathematical modelling/Computational modelling.
Deductive reasoning, or deduction, is making
an inference based on widely accepted facts or
premises. Inductive reasoning, or induction, is
making an inference based on an observation,
often of a sample.
Its all about translation →
Lecture 1b: Research Ethics and Integrity
What is Ethics? ‘An “ethic” is a moral principle or a code of conduct which […] governs what people
do. It is concerned with the way people act or behave. The term “ethics” usually refers to the moral
principles, guiding conduct, which are held by a group or even a profession (though there is no logical
reason why individuals should not have their own ethical code).’
Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing,
defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior. Business ethics is a form of
applied ethics or professional ethics focusing on ethical problems that arise in business environments.
Research ethics focuses on ethical dilemmas and integrity in scientific research.
Ethics as the moral distinction between
right and wrong. Not everything that is
legal is also ethical (and vice versa).
Ethics are used as emergent consensus on
desirable behavior.
What is research misconduct?
- Disrespecting human subjects.
Pressure to participate, inability to
withdraw. Not informing participants
about the objectives of the study at the
outset (no informed consent). Not
respecting anonymity. Abuse of vulnerable people, e.g. elderly or children.
- Fabrication. Making up data or results and recording or reporting them.
- Falsification. Manipulating research data or changing or omitting results such that the research is
not accurately represented in the research report.
- Plagiarism. Appropriation of another person’s ideas or words without giving appropriate credit.
Principles of research integrity:
1. Honesty reporting the research process accurately, refraining from making unfounded claims,
refraining from fabricating or falsifying data or sources and refraining from presenting results more
favourably or unfavourably than they actually are.
2. Scrupulousness means using methods that are scientific or scholarly and exercising the best
possible care in research.
3. Transparency means that it is clear what data the research was based on, how the data were
obtained, what and how results were achieved and what role was played by external stakeholders →
open data is a trend now.
4. Independence means not allowing the choice of method, the assessment of data to be guided by
non-scientific or non-scholarly considerations (e.g., those of a commercial or political nature).
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