Notes – Introduction to International Relations 2022
Lecture 2: 08/09/2022
Why do we need Concepts and Theories of International Relations?
Readings before lecture:
1. The Globalisation of World Politics (Baylis, Owens, Smith) – Pages 5 – 18
Globalisation can be described as the increasing interconnectedness among societies such that events in
one part of the world increasingly affect people and communities far away. A globalised world is one in
which political, economic, cultural and social events become increasingly interconnected and more
impactful.
World politics is more inclusive than international relations or international politics, as it also includes
non-national-states and more different actors (multinational corporations, transnational terrorist groups,
NGOs, and social classes).
International Relations address the most pressing problems shaping the lives of everyone on the planet
(War and peace, global economy, global inequality, environment, etc.).
Meta-theoretical questions
These questions are above any particular theory. Nevertheless, first, you need to distinguish between
explanatory (what is the main cause for something?) and normative (what ought to be?) views.
Constitutive theories (why are we doing this?).
Realists and liberalists tend to be explanatory. In contrast, nearly all the other approaches tend to be
constitutive theories. Another distinction is between foundationalism (all truth claims can be judged true
or false) and anti-foundationalism (truth claims cannot be considered).
Concepts are contested because:
- Their definition is rarely consensual
- Their meaning is not fixed in time (there are no fixed truths)
- Ethno-centrism (Eurocentric approach, some contents do not work in other cultures, etc.)
Concepts are helpful to:
- Making sense of complex realities, being able to labelling
- Make sure we are talking about the same thing
- Ensure some degree of constructive dialogue (finding similarities to ensure a conversation)
- Develop and evaluate theories (when states act in a certain way, we can create predictions)
What are theories, and why do we need them?
Real life is too complex (too many data points, variables, and moving parts); we need theories to simplify
real life. When you are putting more effort into specific patterns, you theorise.
Theory:
- It goes beyond mere description
- Is an explanation: an answer to "why did this happen?"
- Interprets data
- Identifies patterns, and regularities across time and space
- It helps us describe, explain, anticipate and eventually prescribe
Different approaches to questions give different outcomes
(Causal explanations are derived from theories -> set of assumptions).
,Notes – Introduction to International Relations 2022
What are "International Relations"?
1. Who? (What type of actors are we talking about?)
States:
According to international law (Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of states, 1933), the
following qualifications should be possessed by a state:
- A permanent population,
- A defined territory,
- Government with bureaucracy,
- Furthermore, the capacity to enter into relations with other states.
Problems:
- It is difficult to determine these qualifications (fluctuating territories (even Spain and France))
- Declaration vs constitutive theory of statehood (not only do these four qualifications need to be
possessed but also the state needs to be recognised by other states).
- How the "state" is created in practice matters (was the force used, etc.)
- Internal sovereignty: states hold a monopoly on some functions within their territory (currency)
- vs external sovereignty: recognition & autonomy
State vs Nation vs Nation-state:
- State: sovereign territorial recognised government, which has different abilities (Montevideo).
- Nation: people united by some degree, but not bound to a territory (religion, language).
- Nation-state: the idea of building states with united inhabitants (Israel).
Disaggregated state: to break down a state to all entities that act internationally (ministries, etc.)
2. What? (What type of "relations" are we interested in?)
Interactions: War and peace, trade, international agreements
- Bilateral (interactions between two states)
vs multilateral (interactions between at least three states)
- Every action or inaction which affects other states
- Transnational relations, non-state and sub-state actors
International politics vs national (or domestic) politics / Level of analysis
Usually three levels of analysis:
1. International,
2. National/ domestic level,
3. Individual level of analysis.
Does the Level of distinction still matter in a "globalised" world?
- It matters from a theoretical perspective
- National order vs international anarchy
- The "Level of analysis" framework is a type of theorising
,Notes – Introduction to International Relations 2022
Lecture 3: 12/09/2022
Why do we need to know history to understand International Relations?
Readings before lecture:
1. The Globalisation of World Politics (John Baylis) – Pages 40 – 53
The West is central to global political institutions (UN in New York, Courts in The Hague), and many of the
permanent members of the UN Security Council are Western powers. Western ideologies and ideas are
spread around the world. Some people think that happened because of its innate strengths (liberal ideas,
democratic practices, and free markets); others argue that the West exploited and subjugated (to make
submissive) different areas. The West only arose in the last two or three centuries.
Historical international orders
The earliest "international orders" records occurred around 14 thousand years ago in Sumer (now Iraq).
The people in different communities traded with their agricultural surpluses but were also at risk of
attacks. More prominent cities developed specialisations, and new political hierarchies increased their
capabilities. The leaders of these communities talked with each other and recognised each other's
sovereignty – the definition of international order.
After the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, states could not intervene in other states based on religious beliefs
(states assumed sovereignty over their territories). That is why Westphalia is seen as the principle of
sovereign territoriality. However, the impact of Westphalia was not so significant after all, as it was only
necessary for the inner security of the Holy Roman Empire.
How did modern international order emerge?
Till 1800, there were no significant differences between Europe and Asia in terms of living standards.
However, in the 19th century, the power of the Asian region shrunk, and the West became more powerful
in many areas (production, military, etc.). This shift is often called the "great divergence". In addition,
some argue that the intensity of inner-European wars was a push toward technological and tactical
advances. Nevertheless, European imperialism was also significant, as it boosted the trading power. The
19th century also began mass emigrations (50 million people from Europe to the US).
Industrialisation
During the first wave (British), the capture of steam power enabled the most considerable increase in the
availability of power sources. However, also different engineering advances helped in the production of
goods. The second wave (German and US) was centred on advances in chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and
electronics. So also the first oil exports began in the middle of the 19th century.
These two waves of industrialisation helped the massive expansion of the world market.
Rational states
The extension of the world market also led to increased use of force from the world powers, such as the
British Commonwealth. After the French Revolution in 1789, the armies and navies became national
property. Also, the bureaucracies increased in the countries, which led to new political systems. The
colonial powers (Britain, Netherlands, France) used the militaries of different nations to fight their wars.
Imperialism
There were many forms: The British imperial web included direct-rule colonies (India), settler colonies
(Australia), protectorates (Brunei), bases (Gibraltar), treaty ports (Shanghai), and spheres of influence
(Argentina).
Imperialism was deeply destructive: ecocide (deforestation), genocide (10 million Congolese killed by the
Belgians, over 50 % of Nama and Herero by German forces, and many more).
, Notes – Introduction to International Relations 2022
The consequences of the global transformation
Shrinking the planet
Intercontinental trade with products such as silk, porcelain, and spices took a long time. However, during
the 19th century, ocean transportation became fast and monetary reachable. However, also, the
advancement of the railways was equally important. The train timetables pushed states to regularise
time; trains were also used to link rural areas to ports, leading to an entire global trading system. The final
breakthrough technology was the telegraph, which led to people thinking of a single entity.
Intergovernmental organisations and international NGOs
The new technologies demanded international coordination, resulting in the emergence of IGOs as
permanent features of international order. Many of these organisations were part of society-wide
debates for mostly all areas of interest and pressured states to become democracies.
Inequality
Racism
At the end of the 19th century, a new form of racism emerged: "scientific racism". Its advocates/
proponents argued that it was possible and necessary to establish a political hierarchy based on biological
markers (visible: skin colour) or bloodline (religion). However, racism emerged from the West again,
placing black people at the bottom of the new System.
Economic exploitation
Capitalists wanted to make more profits, which led to lower wages for workers and the introduction of
more areas of production and new products. Powerful states also hindered other states in the process of
industrialisation (Commonwealth in India).
The effects of European imperialism are still visible in many parts of the world.
2. The Globalisation of World Politics (John Baylis) – Pages 53 – 69
Before the Second World War, Europe was the arbiter (judge) of world affairs, while the USSR and the US
remained preoccupied with internal development. However, the war brought both parties deep into
Europe, both military and political. This led to the transformation of allies into antagonists (opponents).
After the war, both emerged as superpowers, and nuclear weapons posed unprecedented challenges to
world politics.
Modern total war
Many people argue over WW1's origin, but whatever the causes, the pattern of events is clear. First, after
the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, Austro-Hungaria declared War against Serbia. Then, because of
German's alliance with Austria and Russia's partnership with Serbia, the war became a catalyst for a
European-wide conflict. Finally, the British acted because they collaborated with the Belgians, as Germany
attacked France. Then, after Germany agreed to an armistice (temporary stopping of open warfare), the
Treaty of Versailles in 1919 promised a new framework for European security and a new international
order. However, after the crash of Wall Street, the Great Depression in 1929 gave the Nazis a good
ground to grow their influence.
The rise and fall of Japan
Japan invaded China in 1937 after a long industrial boom in the country. Then, after the US imposed
economic sanctions, Japan precipitated military preparations for a surprise attack on Pearl Harbour.
When Germany and Italy declared War on America in support of Japan, America prepared a second front
to stop Hitler. Fortunately, the German defeat came before the atomic bomb was ready. After the
American bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan also surrendered.
