De samenvatting van het boek 'Mind, brain and education' van David A. Sousa is deels geschreven in het Engels en deels in het Nederlands. Het Engelse gedeelte is daarentegen gemakkelijk te begrijpen! In de samenvatting wordt verwezen naar paginanummers zodat extra informatie en afbeeldingen gemakke...
Mind, brain and education – Sousa
Hoofdstuk 1: How science met pedagogy
Behavioral psychologists made inferences about brain functioning by watching how people respond
to stimuli (e.g. Pavlov).
Cognitive psychologists got conclusions about brains growth by watching how and when children
acquired certain skills (e.g. Eriksson).
Neurologists looked at case studies where a patient’s behavior changed as a result of some brain
trauma (e.g. stroke).
Only, the one way they could actually look at human brain was in an autopsy. CAT and MRI shows
brain structure and not brain function. PET scans revealed which parts of the brain were more or less
active at any given moment. However, they need an injection so then there was the fMRI (functional
magnetic resonance imaging). With the result that each hemisphere has different functions.
Discoveries about the brain:
- Movement: The brain is more active when learners are moving around. Movement brings extra
blood to the brain which allows the brain to access more long-term memory areas and helps the
students to make greater connections between new and prior knowledge.
- Emotions: Children cannot focus unless they feel physically safe (violence) and emotionally secure
(respect).
- Varying pace of brain development explains behavior (tempo): The emotional areas of the brain are
fully developed at the age of 10-12 but the regions responsible for rational thought and emotional
control only at 22-24.
- Social and cultural climates in school: Studies have revealed brain regions that appraise the
meaning of an event and decide what response you have to use.
- The brain can grow new neurons: First they thought that neurons were the only body cells that did
not regenerate (neemt juist af dacht ze). Then they found that at least in a part of the brain
(hippocampus: encoding long-term memories) the brain does grow neurons. This regrowth
correlated with mood, memory and learning. It could be enhanced by good nutrition and low level of
stress.
- The brain can rewire itself (neuroplasticity): The brain can change as a result of environmental
imput (dyslexia – computer programmes – the cerebral networks are going to perform more like
those of good readers).
- Short-term memory is not so temporary: First, short-term memory consists of two components: a
brain area that processes incoming informative for a few seconds ad an area where informative is
processed for extended period (e.g. after a test). Second, the brain uses criteria in deciding what to
encode to long-term memory. So learning has to be meaningful and relevant.
- Sleep: Researchers found that the brain is active during sleep, carrying out processes that help the
brain to learn, make connections, remember, etc. A brain that doesn’t sleep has trouble capturing all
sorts of memories.
Hoofdstuk 3: The current impact of neuroscience on teaching and learning
In computer games the players has to go through increasingly challenging levels. As skill improves,
the next challenge motivates practice and persistence because the player feels the challenge is
achievable. This is also needed in the classroom. Opportunities for students to see their effort-
related improvement along the way to an ultimate goal, instead of having only the feedback of a final
test. The computer game does not give prizes but it remains compelling because of the powerful
brain response to intrinsic reward (= dopamine-reward effect).
, RAS
Neuroimaging studies show how stress and pleasure influence the way the brain filters sensory input
and the effects of such emotions on the amygdala (= a gateway that sends input (negative and
positive situations) either to the thinking brain (prefrontal cortex) or to the reactive brain). Stress
puts the input in the reactive brain and is no longer available for higher cognitive processing. To
reduce the stress and increase information processing teachers can recognize effort as well as
achievement and providing opportunities for them to work at their achievable challenge level. All the
sensory information must pass through the RAS (reticular activating system) reactive brain before it
is in the prefrontal cortex. Only several sensory information goes to the RAS. Priority goes to changes
in the environment like threats. When a threat is perceived, the RAS automatically selects related
sensory information and directs it to the reactive brain where the response is fight, flight or freeze.
The RAS selects the sensory input. So, when there’s a threat, the brain is doing its primary job:
protecting the individual from harm. At that time the prefrontal cortex does not receive the sensory
input of important items, and there’s no chance of learning.
Als er een threat is, selecteert RAS die informatie en die komt in reactive brain. Dit gaat niet naar
de prefrontale cortex en er wordt dus niet geleerd. De RAS bepaalt dus wat er wel in komt.
Daarom moeten kinderen nieuwsgierig zijn naar nieuwe dingen en veranderingen. Dan pikt de RAS
dat op en kunnen ze leren. Dit kan zijn: voorspellingen doen (zie p. 51).
Study of faces with different emotions resulted that when we are in negative emotional state, the
amygdala directs input to the lower, reactive brain (fight/flight/freeze). When pleasant faces were
shown, the activity was lower in the amygdala and higher in the prefrontal cortex. So the
nonthreatening favors conduction of information through the amygdala networks to the prefrontal
cortex.
Dopamine
Dopamine is one of many neurotransmitters that carry information across gaps (synapses) between
the branches (axons and dendrites) of connecting neurons. Engaging students in learning activities
that correlate with increased dopamine release will likely get them to respond not only with
pleasure, but also with increased focus, memory and motivation. A drop in dopamine can be
associated with negative emotions. When one’s prediction is correct the nucleus accumbens releases
more dopamine then when you mistake. A lowering of dopamine results in a pleasure drop. This set
of effects makes dopamine a learning-friendly neurotransmitter. When you’ve got an incorrect
prediction, next time you want to do it better: the brain wants to avoid the pleasure drop. Therefore
corrective feedback is needed. The brain favors and repeats actions that release more dopamine, so
the neural memory becomes stronger. The brain responds negatively to mistake recognition by
altering the memory circuit to avoid repeating the mistake and experiencing another drop in the
dopamine pleasure. But then there was neuroplasticity. The brain responds to the dopamine drop-on
or drop-off by changing the neural circuits. Then the brain is more likely to produce a correct
response next time: the brain changes the incorrect information in the neural network.
What to do? 1. Keep the amygdala pathway open to the prefrontal cortex by reducing the fear of
participation. 2. Obtain frequent assessment without calling on specific students.
Neuroplasticity
Changes neural networks by adding or pruning synapses and dendrites and producing layers of
myelin around axons. Therefore repeated activation is needed. When you share with students that
their brain networks and memories strengthened with the neural activation of review and practice,
just like muscles.
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