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Reading Guide antwoorden - Developmental Neuropsychology (UU)
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- Universiteit Utrecht (UU)
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Chapter 1 Child neuropsychology: theory and practiceWhat is child neuropsychology?
the study of brain-behavior relations within the context of an immature but rapidly developing
brain.
What does plasticity, vulnerability, ’growing into deficits’, and critical periods mean?
Plasticity: impairments are smaller when lesions occur in infancy than when they take place in
adulthood (intelligence: no, language: yes). Mostly with motor impairments. Two types: restitution
(recovery from same area) and substitution (recovery from different areas). Two types of restitution:
collateral sprouting (growth of new neurons) and denervation super sensitivity (increased sensitivity).
There is sometimes also crowding effect: no fully functional reorganisation. Or there is impaired and
excessive plasticity.
vulnerability: weakness
Growing into deficits: in children and adolescents, the effects of brain injury may not become
apparent until after some time has passed.
Critical periods: the time window during which external influences have a significant effect.
Describe the biopsychosocial model in this chapter. What are the dimensions?
Biological (brain), psychological (cognition and social-emotional function) and social
(environment) all constantly interact with each other throughout the development of a child.
Chapter 2 The developing brain (see also lecture by Chris Dijkerman)
What is the current view on brain organization?
a modular organization: brain is highly specialised in structure and function.
What is the difference between modular organization and the connectionist view?
Modular organization: this says that the processing of particular behavioural functions is
attributed to distinct cortical regions, connected via specific functional neural networks or circuits.
Connectionist view: this says that many behaviours and skills are mediated by complex neural
networks, incorporating both frontal and extra-frontal systems. This view has been receiving growing
support, with evidence that functional neural networks underpin a range of more complex skills.
Describe the 3 views/approaches to understanding cognitive abilities in infants Mark Johnson
distinguishes
1) Maturation: there is a genetically predetermined developmental sequence of neuroanatomical
regions, which provides the foundation for the hierarchical emergence of sensory, motor and
cognitive processes. So, the regions mature and become more active and thus develop a skill.
2) Interactive specialisation: the emergence of a new skill reflects refinement of connectivity
between brain regions, not just activity in one or more regions.
3) Skill learning: patterns of brain activation change during skill acquisition.
,What are important characteristics of and difference between prenatal and postnatal development?
structural morphology of the brain is mature by birth, but the growth continues postnatal.
Prenatal is structural formation of the CNS and Postnatal is more about the elaboration of the brain:
dendritic arborisation, myelination and synaptogenesis.
Important concepts in PRENATAL:
- Neurulation: rapid generation of cells (neurons and glial cells)
- Proliferation: neurons that form the cerebral cortex are generated. Specific cell populations
emerge in unique locations within the neural tube and will later develop into specific
cerebral structures
- Migration: neuroblasts migrate to permanent location
- Synaptogenesis and dendritic development: make cerebral connections. Axons extend and
dendrites branch out like trees.
- Myelination: myelin on the connections to make faster signals
- Differentiation: cells become more committed to specialised systems, relevant connections
are made and functional activity begins.
- Synaptic pruning/elimination: cell death of unnecessary connections.
Important concepts in POSTNATAL:
- Growth of short cortico-cortical connections
- Development of local circuity
This is mostly fine-tuning
What are the two classes of cells and their characteristics of the CNS?
neurons and glial cells. These 2 cells help with neurulation. These cells are produced by division of
neuroblasts and glio blasts. Glial cells help damaged neurons, they have a supportive and nutrient
role within the CNS.
,What kind of major structural abnormalities can occur during early brain development?
Spina bifida, anencephaly, microencephaly, megalencephaly, lissencephaly, schizencephaly,
polymicrogeria, agenesis of the corpus callosum, focal dysplasia’s, and porencephaly:
What is the link between critical periods and brain development?
Critical periods are stages in development during which specific cognitive domains may
experience major progression. They have increased plasticity. And are sensitive to environmental
influences. Negative disruption in critical period causes a cessation of brain development and alters
its course.
What is the impact of biological agents on the developing brain?
Biological agents: are genetic factors and intrauterine trauma (infections, injury). They can lead to
structural malformations and cerebral reorganisation.
, Chapter 3 Cognitive and social development (see also Lecture by Chris Dijkerman)
Why is it important to focus on information processing skills and its development?
Information processing skills = attention, memory, processing speed, executive skills and social
cognition. It thus is very broad. These abilities are frequently compromised in neurodevelopmental
disorders and brain insults during childhood.
Describe the 3 attentional components: vigilance/ arousal or sustained attention, selective attention,
and attentional control (including attention shifting, divided attention, and inhibition)
Sustained attention: the ability to maintain attention over time. Important for children who need
to acquire new skills and knowledge within the extended school day. Mediated by the reticular
formation, brainstem structures and medial thalamus. Emerges gradually during infancy and early
childhood.
Selective attention: the ability to target attentional resources to a specific task, and filter out
distracting stimuli, or to detect relevant stimuli and generate motor responses in the context of
background distraction. Mediated by superior temporal, inferior parietal and striatal regions. Formed
in the first 5 years of life.
Attention control: comprising inhibition, self-regulation and monitoring. These emerge early and
support the development of other cognitive domains. Shifting attention: relates to mental flexibility.
Divided attention: refers to the capacity to simultaneously attend two tasks/stimuli. High-order skill.
Mediated by the prefrontal cortex. Inhibition is the ability to intentionally suppress a dominant
response. Self-regulation and monitoring: the capacity to manage one’s own thoughts, feelings and
actions in flexible ways across a variety of contexts.
What are important memory systems, processes and types of memory?
- Sensory store: information enters via the senses and is briefly held there
- Short-term memory, long-term memory and working memory
- Encoding, storage, and retrieval
- Rehearsal and chunking
- Declarative vs procedural (or implicit vs explicit): Declarative/implicit refers to a memory for
which the individual has conscious awareness, with recall. Procedural/explicit refers to
memory for a skilled activity, such as piano, with no conscious recall.
What can you tell about the neural correlates of memory?
- Basal ganglia and brainstem: connected to the procedural/implicit memory skills
- Temporal lobes (hippocampus): connected to encoding and storage of information, thus the more
declarative/ explicit memory. These skills develop slower.
- Frontal lobes: connected to selective attention, voluntary action and working memory
How can recognition, immediate recall, and working memory be assessed?
With object permanence tasks and delayed matching to sample: a procedure in which the
participant is shown a sample stimulus and then, after a variable time, a pair of test stimuli and is
asked to select the test stimulus that matches the earlier sample stimulus.
Immediate recall can specifically be assessed by remembering a number of digits or letters.
Why is information processing speed so important? What is the neural basis?
The rate at which information is transmitted throughout the information processing system
reflects the efficiency of the overall system. Faster processing also ensures minimal loss or ‘delay’ of
material, so that a task can be completed while the necessary information or instructions are still
available to the child.
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