Lecture 1: the neuropsychologist
What is a neuropsychologist?
A neuropsychologist is a clinician and/or scientist who uses neurology, neuroscience, and
psychology to understand how behaviours correlate with brain function. To assess ‘normal’ and
‘impaired’ cognitive, social, physical, and emotional functioning. Neuropsychology is usually
clinical in nature.
Who was Donald Hebb and what is Hebbian theory?
He is considered the father of neuropsychology. His theory was that neural pathways develop
based on experiences. If a pathway is used more regularly, they become faster and stronger.
What does a neurological examination consist of? (Section 26.1)
1. Patient’s history:
a. The neurologist collects information about the patient’s background, especially
history of disease, accidents, and the occurrence of symptoms.
b. Family history some diseases have a high familial incidence
2. State of awareness
a. Alert, drowsy, stupor, confused
b. Speech abnormalities, facial asymmetries, body posture
c. Emotions (agitated, anxious, depressed, apathetic, restless)
3. Physical examination
a. Blood pressure, brain imaging, reflexes, pain, muscle movement, smell
4. Disorders
a. Strokes, injuries, and lesions may show asymmetry, loss of function
b. Parkinson’s may show loss of smell and motor changes
c. Dementia may show memory loss, disorientation, or agitation
What is the Biopsychosocial model for neuropsychological assessment? (Section 28.1)
'The manner in which brain-injured individuals adapt to and understand their disabilities is
influenced by an interaction between neurocognitive factors (the nature of the brain pathology),
psychological factors (premorbid experiences, personality, and values), and socioenvironmental
factors (the milieu in which behavior is elicited or observed, including culture). A
neuropsychological assessment must be done in the holistic context of a person’s life'
Explain the differences between Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasia. What is an aphasia?
(Discussed in section 1.3.)
- Broca’s aphasia: loss of grammatical structure, and difficulty forming words or sentences.
instead of saying ‘my son studies at the university’ they say ‘son… university’.
- Wernicke’s aphasia: word slad. No understanding of spoken or written language. Seems
like the patient is speaking a foreign language.
Define these 4 terms: localization, lateralization, distributed function, and hierarchical
organization
- Localization: damage in a certain part of the brain concluded that some brain functions
were anatomically located
- Lateralization: damage on a certain side of the brain concluded that some functions
were usually on a specific side of the brain
- Distribution of function: lost functions are sometimes rehabilitated concluded that
other parts of the brain can compensate
- Hierarchical organization: sophistication of functions varies depending on whether a
higher or lower brain area is damaged brain processes start with lower levels and are
processed through increasingly higher levels. Sometimes the brain can compensate with
lower regions.
,Define the following anatomical locations in the brain: rostral, caudal, dorsal, and
ventral; superior and inferior.
Summarize in 1-2 sentences why there is a “Wonderland of Nomenclature” (section
3.1, p.52) in neuroanatomy. (You only need to understand the general explaination –
don’t worry about memorizing details here.)
To the beginning student, and perhaps even an expert, the naming of brain parts might seem
chaotic. And it is because neuroscientists have been at it for a long time, and names accumulate
as knowledge of brain parts and their functions grows. Consequently, many structures may have
several names, often used interchangeably, that describe their appearance, their location, or one
or more of their functions.
most structures have many names that can be based on their location, color, person who found
it, function, etc. which makes the nomenclature of anatomical structures a wonderland.
Why is the arterial structure of the brain useful to understand?
Brain lessions are often duet to loss of oxygen in a certain brain region, knowing the arterial
structure of the brain can help to understand which brain area is affected during a stroke.
Where on the brain would you find the anterior, middle, and posterior cerebral
arteries? Could you
point to the locations if you were asked? (Figure 3.5) What is the Circle of Willis?
, What is a neuron and what are its main parts?
The function of nerve cells, also called neurons, is to receive sensory input from the outside world,
to send motor commands to our muscles, and to transform and relay electrical signals.
1. Dendrites: receiving of signals
2. Cell body: integration of signals
3. Axon: sending of signals
The axon is covered in a fatty layer, the myelin, this layer helps to speed up the transduction of
electrical signal.
Describe the major parts and functions of the Brainstem (Hindbrain, Midbrain,
Dicephalon) and Telencephalon (Basal Ganglia, Limbic System, Neocortex, Fissures,
Sulci, Gyri).
The brain stem:
- Hindbrain: The hindbrain coordinates functions that are fundamental to survival,
including respiratory rhythm, motor activity, sleep, and wakefulness.
- Midbrain: The midbrain is associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake,
arousal (alertness), and temperature regulation, acting as a sort of relay station for auditory
and visual information.
- Dicencephalon: The diencephalon is involved in many crucial bodily functions
including coordinating with the endocrine system to release hormones, relaying sensory
and motor signals to the cerebral cortex, and regulating circadian rhythms (the sleep wake
cycle).
The telencephalon:
- Basal ganglia: The basal ganglia are composed of 3 nuclei. They are very important for
motor control (specially to allow or not allow a certain movement) and for motor learning.
The basal ganglia consists of the putamen, caudate nucleus and the globus pallidus.
- Limbic system: The limbic system is the part of the brain involved in our behavioural and
emotional responses, especially when it comes to behaviours we need for survival: feeding,
reproduction and caring for our young, and fight or flight responses.
- Neocortex: The neocortex comprises the largest part of the cerebral cortex and makes up
approximately half the volume of the human brain. It is thought to be responsible for the
neuronal computations of attention, thought, perception and episodic memory.
- The cortex consists of gyri (hills) and sulci (valley).
What are the 4 lobes and their functions?
- Frontal lobe: voluntary movement, expressive language and for managing higher level
executive functions
- Parietal lobe: sensory perception and integration, including the management of taste,
hearing, sight, touch, and smell.
- Occipital lobe: associated with visuospatial processing, distance and depth perception,
color determination, object and face recognition, and memory formation.
- Temporal lobe: processing auditory information and with the encoding of memory.
What are the parts and functions of the limbic system?
The limbic system is the part of the brain involved in our behavioural and emotional responses,
especially when it comes to behaviours we need for survival: feeding, reproduction and caring for
our young, and fight or flight responses. It consists of:
- Hippocampus: memory
- Amygdala: emotions
