Introduction to Psychological Theories
Book summary – Gazzaniga, M. S. (2018). Psychological Science. Norton, NY. (6th
edition) ISBN 9780393640403
Index
Chapter 1 – The Science of Psychology ................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Psychological Science Is the Study of Mind, Brain and Behavior .................................................. 5
1.2 Psychological Science Teaches Critical Thinking ........................................................................... 5
1.3 Psychological Science Helps Us Understand Biased or Inaccurate Thinking ................................. 5
1.4 Why Are People Unaware of Their Weaknesses? ......................................................................... 6
1.5 Many psychological Questions Have a Long History ..................................................................... 7
1.6 Experimental Psychology Initially Focused on the Structure, Nor the Function, of Mental
Activity ................................................................................................................................................. 7
1.7 Different Schools of Thought Reflected Different Perspectives on Mind, Brain and Behaviour .. 8
What Are the Latest Developments in Psychology? ......................................................................... 10
1.8 Biology is Increasingly Emphasized in Explaining Psychological Phenomena ............................. 10
1.9 Evolutionary Thinking Is Increasingly Influential ......................................................................... 11
1.10 Culture Provides Adaptive Solutions ......................................................................................... 11
1.11 Psychological Science Now Crosses Levels of Analysis.............................................................. 11
1.12 Subfields in Psychology Focus on Different Levels of Analysis.................................................. 12
1.13 Will Psychology Benefit You in Your Career? ............................................................................ 12
Chapter 6 – learning .............................................................................................................................. 13
6.1 Learning Results from Experience ............................................................................................... 13
6.2 Habituation and Sensitization Are Models of Non-associative Learning .................................... 13
6.3 Behavioural Responses Are Conditioned .................................................................................... 14
6.4 Learning Is Acquired and Persists Until Extinction ...................................................................... 14
6.5 Learning Is based on Evolutionary Significance........................................................................... 15
6.6 Learning Involves Expectancies and Prediction........................................................................... 16
6.7 Phobias and Addictions Have Learned Components .................................................................. 16
6.8 Operant Conditioning Involves Active Learning .......................................................................... 17
6.9 How Do Superstitions Start? ....................................................................................................... 18
6.10 There Are Many Types of Reinforcement ................................................................................. 18
6.11 Operant Conditioning Is Influences by Schedules of Reinforcement ........................................ 19
6.12 Punishment Decreases Behaviour ............................................................................................. 21
6.13 How Can Behaviour Modification Help You Get in Shape? ....................................................... 22
6.14 Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning ............................................................ 22
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, 6.15 Dopamine Activity Underlies Reinforcement ............................................................................ 23
6.16 Learning Can Occur Through Observation and Imitation .......................................................... 24
6.17 Watching Violence in Media May Encourage Aggression ......................................................... 25
6.18 Fear Can Be Learned Through Observation .............................................................................. 25
6.19 Mirror Neurons Are Activated by Watching Others .................................................................. 25
Chapter 3 – Biology and Behaviour ....................................................................................................... 26
3.1 Neurons Are the Basic Units of the Nervous System .................................................................. 26
3.2 Action Potentials Produce Neural Communication ..................................................................... 27
3.3 Neurotransmitters Influence Mental Activity and Behaviour ..................................................... 29
3.4 The Ability to Study Brain Function Has Improved Dramatically ................................................ 31
3.5 The Brain Stem Houses the Basic Programs of Survival .............................................................. 32
3.6 Subcortical Structures Control Emotions and Appetitive Behaviours ........................................ 33
3.7 The Cerebral Cortex Underlies Complex Mental Activity ............................................................ 34
3.8 Splitting the Brain Splits the Mind ............................................................................................... 36
3.9 Are There ‘Left Brain’ and ‘Right Brain’ Types of People? .......................................................... 37
3.10 The Peripheral Nervous System Includes the Somatic and Autonomic Systems ...................... 37
3.11 The Endocrine System Communicated Through Hormones ..................................................... 38
3.12 The Brain Rewires Itself Throughout Life .................................................................................. 39
3.13 The Brain Can Recover from Injury ........................................................................................... 39
3.14 Will a Learning Disability Prevent You from Succeeding in College? ........................................ 40
3.15 All of Human Development Has a Genetic Basis ....................................................................... 40
3.16 Heredity Involves Passing Genes Through Reproduction ......................................................... 40
3.17 Genes Affect Behaviour ............................................................................................................. 41
3.18 Genetic Expression Can be Modified ........................................................................................ 41
Chapter 8 – Thinking, Language, and Intelligence................................................................................. 42
8.1 Thinking Involves Two Types of Mental Representations ........................................................... 42
8.2 Concepts Are Symbolic Representations..................................................................................... 42
8.3 Schemas Organize Useful Information About Environments ...................................................... 42
8.4 Decision Making Often Involves Heuristics ................................................................................. 43
8.5 Emotions Influence Decision Making .......................................................................................... 44
8.6 Why Is It Hard to Resist a Sale? ................................................................................................... 45
8.7 Problem Solving Achieves Goals.................................................................................................. 45
8.8 How Can You Make Good Choices? ............................................................................................ 46
8.9 Language Is a System of Communication Using Sounds and Symbols ........................................ 46
8.10 Language Develops in an Orderly Way...................................................................................... 47
8.11 There Is an Inborn Capacity for Language ................................................................................. 48
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, 8.12 Reading Needs to Be Learned ................................................................................................... 49
8.13 Intelligence Is Measured with Standardized Tests .................................................................... 49
8.14 General Intelligence Involves Multiple Components ................................................................ 50
8.15 Intelligence Is Related to Cognitive Performance ..................................................................... 51
8.16 Genes and Environment Influence Intelligence ........................................................................ 51
8.17 Group Differences in Intelligence Have Multiple Determinants ............................................... 52
Chapter 10 – emotion and motivation .................................................................................................. 53
10.1 Emotions Vary in Valence and Arousal...................................................................................... 53
10.2 Emotions Have a Physiological Component .............................................................................. 53
10.3 Are Lie Detector Tests Valid? .................................................................................................... 55
10.4 There Are Three Major Theories of Emotion ............................................................................ 56
10.5 How Can You Control Your Emotions? ...................................................................................... 57
10.6 Facial Expressions Communicate Emotion ................................................................................ 58
10.7 Emotions Strengthen Interpersonal Relations .......................................................................... 58
10.8 Drives Motivate the Satisfaction of Needs ................................................................................ 59
10.9 People Are Motivated by Incentives ......................................................................................... 60
10.10 People Set Goals to Achieve .................................................................................................... 60
10.11 People Have a Need to Belong ................................................................................................ 61
10.12 Many Physiological Factors Influence Eating .......................................................................... 61
10.13 Eating Is Influenced by Time and Taste ................................................................................... 62
10.14 Biology Influences Sexual Behaviour ....................................................................................... 63
10.15 Cultural Scripts and Cultural Roles Shape Sexual Interactions ................................................ 64
10.16 People Differ in Sexual Orientations ....................................................................................... 65
Chapter 12 – Social Psycoholoy ............................................................................................................. 66
12.1 People Favour Their Own Groups ............................................................................................. 66
12.2 Groups Influence Individual Behaviour ..................................................................................... 67
12.3 People Conform to and Comply with Others ............................................................................ 68
12.4 Can Social Norms Marketing Reduce Binge Drinking? .............................................................. 68
12.5 People Are Obedient to Authority............................................................................................. 69
12.6 Many Factors Can Influence Aggression ................................................................................... 69
12.7 Many Factors Can Influence Helping Behaviour ....................................................................... 70
12.8 Cooperation Can Reduce Outgroup Bias ................................................................................... 70
12.9 People Form Attitudes Through Experience and Socialization ................................................. 71
12.10 Discrepancies Lead to Dissonance........................................................................................... 71
12.11 Attitudes Can Be Changed Through Persuasion ...................................................................... 71
12.12 People Make Judgments About Others................................................................................... 72
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, 12.13 Stereotypes Can Lead to Prejudice and Discrimination .......................................................... 73
12.14 Prejudice Can Be Reduced ....................................................................................................... 73
12.15 Situational and Personal Factor Influence Interpersonal Attraction and Friendships ............ 74
12.16 Love Is an Important Component of Romantic Relationships................................................. 75
12.17 How Can Psychology Rekindle the Romance in Your Relationship? ....................................... 75
Chapter 14 – Psychological Disorders ................................................................................................... 76
14.1 Views on Psychopathology Have Changed over Time............................................................... 76
14.2 Psychological Disorders Are Classified into Categories ............................................................. 76
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,Chapter 1 – The Science of Psychology
Psychology is one of the most popular majors at many colleges, because people want to understand
mental activity and behaviour. The subject material is personally relevant.
Psychology involves the study of mental activity and behaviour. The term psychologist is used broadly
to describe some whose career involves understanding mental life or predicting behaviour. Humans
are intuitive psychologists.
1.1 Psychological Science Is the Study of Mind, Brain and Behavior
Psychological science is the study, through research, of mind, brain and behaviour. The mind refers to
mental activity. The mind in action include perceptual experiences we have while interacting with the
world. The mind is also responsible for memories, thoughts and feelings. Mental activity results from
biological processes within the brain. Behaviour describes the totality of observable human actions.
These actions range from the subtle to the complex. The advent of technology to observe the working
brain in action has enabled psychologists to study mental states and has led to a fuller understanding
of human behaviour.
1.2 Psychological Science Teaches Critical Thinking
You will understand psychologies major issues, theories and controversies, and you will also avoid
common misunderstandings about psychology. You will learn how to separate the believable from the
incredible.
Media reports can be distorted or even flat-our wrong. You will need to be sceptical of overblown
media reports of ‘brand-new’ findings obtained by ‘ground-breaking’ research. You need to be able to
sort through and evaluate the information you find in order to gain a correct understanding of the
phenomenon (observable thing) you are trying to investigate. One of the hallmarks of a good scientist
is amiable scepticism. This trait combines openness and wariness. It remains open to new ideas but is
wary of new ‘scientific findings’ when good evidence and sounds reasoning do not seem to support
them. It is about carefully weighing the facts when deciding what to believe. The ability to think in this
way is called critical thinking.
Being a critical thinker involves looking for holes in evidence, using logic and reasoning and considering
alternative explanations. It also requires considering whether the information is biased.
As a critical thinker ask yourself: Is my belief still true? What led me to believe it? What facts support
it? Has science produces new findings that require us to re-evaluate and update our believes?
Many decades of psychological research have shown that people’s intuitions are often wrong. Human
thought is often biased in ways that make critical thinks very difficult. Through scientific study,
psychologists have discovered types of situations in which common sense fails and biases influence
people’s judgments.
1.3 Psychological Science Helps Us Understand Biased or Inaccurate Thinking
Most of the errors and biases occur because we are motivated to use our intelligence. Our minds are
constantly analysing all the information we receive and trying to make sense of that information. These
attempts generally result in relevant and correct conclusions. The human brain is highly efficient at
finding patterns and noting connections between things. But sometimes we see patterns that do not
really exist. Often we see what we expect to see, but fail to notice things that do not fit with our
expectations.
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,Thomas Gilovich points out that more Americans believe in extrasensory perception (ESP) than in
evolution.
A few of the major biases:
- Ignoring evidence (confirmation bias). People show a strong tendency to place great
importance on evidence that supports their beliefs. They tend to downplay evidence that
does not match what they believe. When people hear about a study that is consistent with
their beliefs, they generally believe the study has merit. When they hear about a study that
contradicts those beliefs, they look for flaws or other problems.
o One factor that contributes to confirmation bias is the selective sampling of
information. People show selective memory, tending to better remember information
that supports their existing beliefs.
- Seeing relationships that do not exist. An extremely common reasoning error is the
misperception that two events that happen at the same time must somehow be related. In
our desire to find predictability in the world, we sometimes see order that does not exist.
Believing that events are related when they are not can lead to superstitious behaviour. But
many times events that appear related are just coincidence.
- Accepting after-the-fact explanations. Because people expect the world to make sense, they
often come up with explanations for why events happen. They do so even when they have
incomplete information. One form of this reasoning bias is known as hindsight bias. We are
wonderful at explaining why things happened, but we are much less successful at predicting
future events. Once we know the outcome, we interpret and reinterpret old evidence to make
sense of that outcome.
- Taking mental shortcuts. People often follow simple rules, called heuristics, to make decisions.
These mental shortcuts are valuable because they often produce reasonably good decisions
without too much effort. Unfortunately, many heuristics can lead to inaccurate judgments and
biased outcomes. One example of this problem occurs when things that come most easily to
mind guide our thinking. This shortcut is known as the availability heuristic.
1.4 Why Are People Unaware of Their Weaknesses?
Another bias in thinking is that people fail to see their own inadequacies. People are motivated to feel
good about themselves and this affects how they think. Many people think for example that they are
better that average on any number of dimension. One factor that promotes overconfidence is that
people often have difficulty recognizing their own weaknesses.
Fremdschämen refers to times when we experience embarrassment for other people in part because
they do not realize that they should be embarrassed for themselves.
‘If people lack the skills to produce correct answers, they are also cursed with an inability to know
when their answers, or anyone else’s, are right or wrong’ (Dunning et al., 2003). In studies of college
students, Dunning and Kruger found that people with lowest grades rate their mastery of academic
skills much higher than is warranted by their performance. People who are unaware of their
weaknesses fail to make any effort at self-improvements to overcome those weaknesses. Kruger and
Dunning (1999) have shown that teaching people specific skills helps them to be more accurate by
judging their performance. This implies that people might need help in identifying their weaknesses
before they can fix those.
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, What Are the Scientific Foundations of Psychology?
Psychology originated in philosophy.
1.5 Many psychological Questions Have a Long History
Aristotle and Plato debated whether an individual’s psychology is attributable more to nature or to
nurture. So are they biologically innated or are they acquired through education, experience and
culture.
Nature/nurture debate
Psychologists now widely recognize that both nature and nurture dynamically interact in human
psychological development. They study ways that nature and nurture influence each other in shaping
mind, brain and behaviour.
Mind/body problem
The mind/body problem was perhaps the quintessential psychological issue: Are mind and body
separate and distinct, or is the mind simply the subjective experience of ongoing brain activity? Among
the Greeks and Romans recognition grew that the brain was essential for normal mental functioning.
This change in way of thinking about the brain was due to observing people with brain injuries.
The believe that the mind was separate from and in control of the body held believe because of the
strong belief that a divine and immortal soul separated humans from nonhuman animals. Leonardo
da Vinci dissectioned the brain, which led him to many conclusions about the brain’s working. His work
was not accurate, but is represents an early and important attempt to link the brain’s anatomy to
psychological functions.
Philosopher René Descartes promoted the influential theory of dualism. This refers to the idea that
the mind and body are separate yet intertwined. He argued that the body was nothing more than an
organic machine governed by ‘reflex’. Deliberate action, however, was controlled by the rational mind.
Descartes concluded that the rational mind was divine and separate from the body.
1.6 Experimental Psychology Initially Focused on the Structure, Nor the Function, of
Mental Activity
In A System of Logic, the philosopher John Stuart Mill declared that psychology should leave the realms
of philosophy and of speculation and become a science of observation and of experiment. He defined
psychology as ‘the science of the elementary laws of the mind’.
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