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Summary Introduction to psychology / Samenvatting Overzicht van de psychologie RUG €5,86
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  5. Overzicht van de psychologie (PSBA101)

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Summary Introduction to psychology / Samenvatting Overzicht van de psychologie RUG
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An extensive summary of all the key terms with their description/explanation of book chapters 1,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15 which was the required literature for this course at the RUG.

Voorbeeld 4 van de 91  pagina's

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  • Hoofdstuk 1,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15
  • 20 juni 2024
  • 91
  • 2021/2022
  • Samenvatting

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Voorbeeld van de inhoud

1. The Science of Psychology
1.1 Psychological Science Is the Study of Mind, Brain, and Behavior

psychological science: the study, through research, of mind (refers to mental activity, which results
from biological processes in the brain), brain, and behavior (describes the totality of observable
human (or animal) actions).
The term psychologist is used broadly to describe someone whose career involves understanding
mental life or predicting behavior.

Q: What produces mental activity?
Answer: biological activity in the brain.



1.2 Psychological Science Teaches Critical Thinking

amiable skepticism: an amiable skeptic remains open to new ideas but is wary of new “scientific
findings” when good evidence and sound reasoning do not seem to support them.
critical thinking: systematically questioning and evaluating information using well supported evidence.

Q: What is amiable skepticism?
Answer: being open to new ideas but carefully considering the evidence.



1.3 Psychological Science Helps Us Understand Biased or Inaccurate
Thinking

A few of the major biases or erroneous thinkings:
- ignoring evidence (confirmation bias): people show a strong tendency to place great
importance on evidence that supports their beliefs and tend to downplay evidence that does
not match what they believe.
- seeing relationships that do not exist: an extremely common reasoning error is the
misperception that two events that happen at the same time must somehow be related.
- accepting after-the-fact explanations: because people expect the world to make sense, they
often come up with explanations for why events happen, even when they have incomplete
information. One form of this reasoning bias is known as hindsight bias. We are wonderful at
explaining why things happened, but we are much less successful at predicting future events.
- taking mental shortcuts: people often follow simple rules, called heuristics, to make decisions.
These mental shortcuts are valuable because they often produce reasonably good decisions
without too much effort.

Q: Why should you be suspicious of after-the-fact explanations?
Answer: Once people know an outcome, they interpret and reinterpret old evidence to make sense of
that outcome.



1.4 Why Are People Unaware of Their Weaknesses?

,Q: Why should you be skeptical of people’s descriptions of their personal strengths?
Answer: because people often fail to see their personal weaknesses.



1.5 Many Psychological Questions Have a Long History

culture: the beliefs, values, rules, and customs that exist within a group of people who share a
common language and environment.

nature/nurture debate: the arguments concerning whether psychological characteristics are
biologically innate (nature) or acquired through education, experience, and culture (nurture).

mind/body problem: a fundamental psychological issue: Are mind and body separate and distinct, or
is the mind simply the physical brain’s subjective experience?

Da Vinci theorized that all sensory messages (vision, touch, smell, etc.) arrived at one location in the
brain; he called that region sensus communis, and he believed it to be the home of thought and
judgment; its name may be the root of the modern term common sense.

According to philosopher Descartes, the mind and the body are separate yet intertwined (theory of
dualism). Nowadays, psychologists reject dualism.In their view, the mind arises from brain activity. It
does not exist separately.

Q: Which is more important, nature or nurture?
Answer: Both are equally important.



1.6 Experimental Psychology Initially Focused on the Structure, Not the
Function, of Mental Activity

In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt (he founded modern experimental psychology) established the first
psychology laboratory and institute.

introspection: A systematic examination of subjective mental experiences that requires people to
inspect and report on the content of their thoughts.

structuralism: An approach to psychology based on the idea that conscious experience can be
broken down into its basic underlying components.

William James: James published in 1890 the first major overview of psychology. Many of his ideas
have passed the test of time. In theorizing about how the mind works, he moved psychology beyond
structuralism and into functionalism.

Mary Whiton Calkins: Calkins was an important early contributor to psychological science. In 1905,
she became the first woman president of the American Psychological Association.

stream of consciousness: A phrase coined by William James to describe each person’s continuous
series of ever-changing thoughts.

functionalism: An approach to psychology concerned with the adaptive purpose, or function, of mind
and behavior (the mind came into existence over the course of human evolution. It works as it does

,because it is useful for preserving life and passing along genes to future generations = it helps
humans adapt to environmental demands).

Charles Darwin: Introduced in On the Origin of Species, Darwin’s theory of evolution has had a huge
impact on how psychologists think about the mind.

evolutionary theory: A theory presented by the naturalist Charles Darwin; it views the history of a
species in terms of the inherited, adaptive value of physical characteristics of mental activity, and of
behavior.

adaptations: In evolutionary theory, the physical characteristics, skills, or abilities that increase the
chances of reproduction or survival and are therefore likely to be passed along to future generations.

natural selection: In evolutionary theory, the idea that those who inherit characteristics that help
them adapt to their particular environments have a selective advantage over those who do not
(‘survival of the fittest’).

Q: Is the theory of natural selection related to structuralism or functionalism?
Answer: functionalism, because the theory focuses on the function of adaptive behavior -to increase
survival and reproduction.



1.7 Different Schools of Thought Reflected Different Perspectives on
Mind, Brain, and Behavior

As the discipline of psychology spread throughout the world and developed into a vital field of science
and a vibrant profession, different ways of thinking about the content of psychology emerged
(‘schools of thought’).

Sigmund Freud: Freud was the father of psychoanalytic theory. His work hugely influenced
psychology in the twentieth century.

unconscious: The place where mental processes operate below the level of conscious awareness.

psychoanalysis: A method developed by Sigmund Freud that attempts to bring the contents of the
unconscious into conscious awareness so that conflicts can be revealed. For example, Freud used
free association, in which a patient would talk about whatever he or she wanted to for as long as he or
she wanted to (through free association a person would eventually reveal the unconscious conflicts
that caused the psychological problems).

John B. Watson: Watson developed and promoted behaviorism. His views were amplified by
thousands of psychologists, including B.F. Skinner.
Watson believed that animals -including humans- acquire, or learn, all behaviors through
environmental experience (nurture). Therefore, we need to study the environmental stimuli, or
triggers, in particular situations. By understanding the stimuli, we can predict the animals’ behavioral
responses in those situations.

behaviorism: A psychological approach that emphasizes the role of environmental forces in
producing observable behavior.

Gestalt theory: A theory based on the idea that the whole of personal experience is different from the
sum of its constituent elements (=the whole is different from the sum of its parts).

, Carl Rogers: Carl Rogers was a founder of humanistic psychology. According to this school of
thought, people are motivated to improve themselves and their lives.

humanistic psychology: This approach focuses on the basic goodness of people and how they
become happier and more fulfilled.

George A. Miller: In 1957, Miller launched the cognitive revolution in psychology by establishing the
Center for Cognitive Science at Harvard University.

cognitive neuroscience: The study of the neural mechanisms underlying thought, learning,
perception, language, and memory.
During the last decade, this approach has been used to study how people think about others (‘social
neuroscience’).

Q: Which school of thought emphasized the freedom to choose activities that bring personal
fulfillment?
Answer: humanism.



1.8 Biology Is Increasingly Emphasized in Explaining Psychological
Phenomena

Research has made clear that there is some localization of function in the brain. That is, some areas
are important for specific feelings, thoughts, and actions. However, many brain regions have to work
together to produce behavior and mental activity.

Scientists have made enormous progress in understanding the human genome: the basic genetic
code, or blueprint, for the human body. For psychologists, this map represents the foundational
knowledge for studying how specific genes -the basic units of hereditary transmission- affect thoughts,
actions, feelings, and disorders.

Q: What does brain imaging help psychologists study?
Answer: mental activity.


1.9 Evolutionary Thinking Is Increasingly Influential

Q: How does evolution lead to structural changes in the brain?
Answer: Over time, the brain changes in response to adaptive problems affecting survival and
reproduction.



1.10 Culture Provides Adaptive Solutions

Q: What are cultural norms?
Answer: rules that tell people how they ought to behave.

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