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Summary A Brief History of Modern Psychology
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- Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen (RU)
Samenvatting van het boek A Brief History of Modern Psychology van Ludy T. Benjamin.
[Meer zien]Voorbeeld 2 van de 26 pagina's
Voorbeeld 2 van de 26 pagina's
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Voorbeeld van de inhoud
A Brief History of Modern PsychologyLudy T. Benjamin
Chapter 1 – Pre-Scientific Psychology
The practice of psychology is thousands of years old, but the era of concern for this chapter is the
nineteenth century. The term ‘modern psychology’ has come to be synonymous with scientific
psychology. There is consensus that the dating of modern psychology begins with the establishment
of a research laboratory by Wilhelm Wundt at the University of Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. The new
psychological laboratories began their appearance in North America, in the last two decades of the
nineteenth century, first at the John Hopkins University in 1883, then at Indiana University in 1887, at
the University of Wisconsin in 1888, and at Clark University and the universities of Pennsylvania,
Kansas and Nebraska in 1889. The first of the new laboratories in Canada was established at the
University of Toronto in 1891. By 1900 there were over forty such laboratories in North America, all
seeking to apply the new scientific methods, borrowed largely from physiology and psychophysics, to
questions of the basic human processes of seeing and knowing and feeling.
Phrenology
The pseudoscience phrenology was the invention of a German anatomist, Franz Josef Gall, who
believed that different parts of the brain were responsible for different, intellectual, emotional, and
behavioral functions. Some parts of the brain would be overdeveloped, creating a bump on the skull,
whereas other parts might be underdeveloped, creating a skull indentation. The location of these
various functions was specific to a particular area of the skull.
Physiognomy
Another of the pseudoscientific psychologies popular in the nineteenth century was physiognomy,
the evaluation of a person’s character, intellect, and abilities based on facial features. It is also called
characterology, and began in the eighteenth century, based on the work of a Swiss theologian,
Johann Lavater. For a while, physiognomy gained credibility in the field of criminology, largely
because of the work of the Italian anthropologist/criminologist Cesare Lombroso. Both before and
after Lombroso’s writings, there have been many individuals, learned and not so learned, who
believed in the notion of a criminal type, identifiable by facial features.
Mesmerism
Franz Anton Mesmer was an Austrian physician who, in 1775, discovered that he could relieve
medical and psychological symptoms in his patients by passing magnets over their bodies. He called
this procedure animal magnetism, although it would be become better known as mesmerism.
Mesmer believed that the fluids in the body were magnetized, and that many conditions of physical
and mental illness were caused by a misalignment of these fluids. Mesmer described his treatments
as producing a kind of fainting spell that lasted for a brief time, such spells were likely hypnotic
trances.
Spiritualism
Spiritualism was developed in the second half of the nineteenth century, based largely in the New
England states. Contact with the dead was the principal activity of the spiritualists, but they also
provided other psychological benefits including treatments for depression and anxiety disorders, and
advice about problems in the workplace, difficulties in marriage and raising children.
Mental Healing
Mental healing has direct ties to mesmerism and spread across North America in many forms. The
movement’s originator was Phineas Quimby, who had practiced for a decade as a mesmerist before
formulating his own theory and method of mental healing. Quimby believed that many diseases had
, causes that were entirely mental and that other diseases were exacerbated by mental conditions.
Thus Quimby believed that cure resided in the mental powers of the individual and not in the
medical practices of physicians. Shown the way to ‘right thinking’, individuals were wholly capable of
curing themselves.
The Road to Mental Philosophy
British Empiricism
Philosopher John Locke offered a radical conception of the mind as tabula rasa, a blank state. In his
Essay Locke denied the existence of all innate ideas, including the idea that humans were born with
innate knowledge of the existence of God. All knowledge comes from two sources: sensation, via
direct experience with the external world and reflection, meaning ideas from an interaction of new
sensations and ideas already in the mind from early sensations or from thought processes
independent of any new sensations. Although Locke placed great emphasis on the importance of the
senses for the acquisition of knowledge, the mind was assumed no to know the external world
directly but only indirectly through the processes of reflection, an assertion that was strengthened by
George Berkeley’s mentalistic philosophy. For Berkeley, all knowledge was dependent on the
experiencing individual, and qualities of objects of the external world existed only as they were
perceived. These ideas set in motion an empirical approach to the study of the mind that emphasized
observations of the senses as especially and understanding of the processes of perception, learning,
thinking and memory. This work guided the ideas of a great lineage of British philosophers that
included David Hume, David Hartley, James Mill and John Stuart Mill.
Scottish Realism
Thomas Reid is generally recognizes as the founder of Scottish realism, a philosophy of the human
mind also known as ‘common-sense philosophy’. Reid disagreed with the British empiricist view that
denied the reality of direct knowledge of objects and events in the world. With greater trust in the
senses and the conviction that the external world was directly knowable via the senses, the Scottish
philosophers placed their confidence in observation. Further, there was the issue of a long-standing
realization, one that argued against the possibility of a valid science of psychology, that in an
empirical science of psychology, the observing and observed were the same, namely the mind.
American Mental Philosophers
Upham divided mental philosophy into three realms, reflecting the influence of Scottish faculty
psychology: intellect, sensibilities, and will.
Chapter 2 – Physiology, Psychophysics, and the Science of Mind
There is anthropological evidence which suggests that early hominids knew that head injuries could
cause disabilities or death and that they often inflicted such injuries intentionally on animal prey as
well as other hominids.
Cortical Localization
The theory of cortical localization was essentially a nineteenth-century invention and its initial and
most vocal proponent was Franz Joseph Gall, a distinguished anatomist and the inventor of
phrenology. Gall published his ideas on phrenology in the early 1800s when he was nearly 50 years
old. By that time he was already well known for his work in the cranial nerves, brain stem anatomy,
and differentiations of the neural functioning of white and gray matter in the cortex.
Gall’s system of phrenology identified 27 different faculties that resided in the cerebral cortex. For
about a decade, the medical community embraced the phrenological ideas. Work already existed on
nerves that showed specificity of function, so it made sense that the cortex could show such
specificity as well. Further, the neuroanatomical studies on the brain, some of it done by Gall himself,
showed obvious anatomical differences across the cortex. By the 1830s, the medical and scientific
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