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Summary Ontwikkelingspsychologie
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Summary Experience human developmentChapter 1: the study of human development
The field of human development focuses on the scientific study of the systematic processes
of change and stability in people. developmental scientists look at ways in which people
change from conception through maturity as well as at characteristics that remain fairly
stable.
Studying the life span
When the field emerged, most researchers focused their energies on infant and child
development. As the field matured it became clear that development included more than
infancy and childhood. Now researchers consider life-span development to be from “womb
to tomb”. Events such as the timing of parenthood, maternal employment, and marital
satisfaction are also studied as part of developmental psychology.
Human development today
As the field of human development itself developed, its goals came to include:
- Description: how large children vocabulary is at a certain age
- Explanation: how children acquire languages
- Prediction: how to predict future behavior
- Intervention: giving a child speech therapy
Development is messy, it is complex and multifaceted and shaped by interacting arcs of
influence. Students of human development draw collaboratively from a wide range of
disciplines, including psychology, psychiatry, sociology, anthropology, biology, genetics, family
science, education, history, and medicine.
Domains of development
Developmental scientists study three major domains of the self:
- Physical: growth of the body and brain, sensory capacities, motor skills, and health
- Cognitive: learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity
- Psychosocial: emotions, personality, and social relationships
These domains are intricately interconnected.
Periods of the life span
Division of the life span into periods is a social construction: a concept or practice that is an
invention of a particular culture or society. There is no objectively definable moment when a
child becomes an adult, or a young person becomes old.
, Typical developments in 8 periods of human development
Age period Physical developments Cognitive developments Psychosocial developments
Prenatal Conception by fertilization. The Abilities to learn and Fetus responds to mother’s
period genetic endowment interacts remember and to respond to voice and develops a preference
(conception with environmental influences. sensory stimuli are developing for it
to birth) Basic body structures and organs
form. Physical growth is the most
rapid. Vulnerability to
environment is great
Infancy and All senses and body systems Abilities to learn and Attachments to parents and
toddlerhood operate at birth. The brain grows remember are present. Use of others form, self-awareness
(birth to 3) in complexity and is highly symbols and ability to solve develops. Shift from
sensitive to its environment. problems develop by end of dependence toward autonomy.
Physical growth and development second year. Comprehension Interest in other children
of motor skills are rapid and use of language develop increases
Early Growth is steady; appearance Thinking is somewhat Self-concept and understanding
childhood (3 becomes slenderer and egocentric. Understanding of emotions are more complex.
to 6) proportions more adultlike. other people’s perspective Independence, initiative, self-
Appetite diminishes, and sleep grows. Cognitive immaturity control increase. Play becomes
problems are common. results in illogical ideas of the more imaginative. Altruism,
Handedness appears; fine and world. Memory and language aggression, and fearfulness are
gross motor skills improve improve. Intelligence becomes common. Family is still the focus
more predictable of social life
Middle Growth slows. Strength and Egocentrism diminishes. Self-concept becomes more
childhood (6 athletic skills improve. Children begin to think complex, affecting self-esteem.
to 11) Respiratory illnesses are logically. Memory and Coregulation reflects gradual
common, but health is generally language skills increase. shift in control from parents to
better than at any other time in Cognitive gains permit children child. Peers assume central
the life span to benefit from formal importance
schooling. Some children show
special educational needs
Adolescence Physical growth and other Ability to think abstractly and Search for identity, including
(11 to 20) changes are rapid and profound. use scientific reasoning sexual identity, becomes central.
Reproductive maturity occurs. develops. Immature thinking Relationships with parents are
Major health risks arise from persists in some attitudes and generally good. Peer group may
behavioral issues. behaviors. Education focuses exert a positive or negative
on preparation for college of influence
vocation
Emerging Physical condition peaks, then Thought and moral Personality traits and styles
and young declines slightly, lifestyle choices judgements become more become relatively stable.
adulthood influences health complex. Educational and Intimate relationships and
(20 to 40) occupational choices are personal lifestyles are
made, sometimes after periods established but may not be
of exploration lasting. Most people marry and
most become parents
Middle Slow deterioration of sensory Mental abilities peak: expertise Sense of identity continues of
adulthood abilities, health stamina, and and practical problem-solving develop; midlife transition may
,(40 to 65) strength may begin, but skills are high. Creative output occur. Dual responsibilities of
individual differences are wide. may decline but improve in caring for children and parents
Woman experiences menopause quality. For some career may cause stress. Launching of
success and earning powers children leaves empty nest.
peak; for others, burnout or
career change may occur
Late Most people are healthy and Most people are mentally Retirement from workforce may
adulthood active, although health and alert. Although intelligence occur. People develop more
(65 and physical abilities generally and memory may deteriorate flexible strategies to cope with
over) decline. Slowing of reaction time in some areas, most people personal losses and impending
affects some aspects of find ways to compensate death. Relationships with family
functioning and close can provide important
support. Search for meaning in
life assumes central importance
Heredity, environment, and maturation
People differ in gender, height, weight, and body build; in health and energy level; in
intelligence; and in temperament, personality, and emotional reactions à individual
differences. Every person had a unique developmental trajectory, an individual path to
follow.
Influences on development can be described in two primary ways:
- Heredity: the inborn traits and characteristics provided by a child’s biological parents
- Environment: outside of the body. Starting at conception with the prenatal
environment in the womb and continuing throughout life
Many typical changes of infancy and early childhood, such as the abilities to walk and talk are
tied to maturation of the body and brain. To understand development, we need to look at
the inherited characteristics that give each person a start in life. We also need to consider the
many environmental factors that affects development. We need to consider how heredity
and environment interact.
Contexts of development
Human beings are social beings. From the beginning they develop within a social and
historical context. The nuclear family is a household unit consisting of one or two parents
and their children. The increased incidence of divorce has affected the nuclear family.
Children of divorced parents may live with one or the other parents or may move back and
forth between them. There are increasing numbers of single and childless adults, unmarried
parents, gay and lesbian households, and mixed-race households. There is no longer one
dominant family form. In many societies in Asia, Africa, and Latin America and among some
U.S. families that trace their lineage to those countries, the extended family (a
multigenerational network of grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, and more distant
relatives) is the traditional family form.
Although children from middle- and lower-income families, even those above the poverty
line, are not as negatively affected, they nonetheless are at a disadvantage relative to
wealthy peers with respect to employment insecurity and income inequality. People are
, often associated with socioeconomic status. The farm poverty does is often indirect through
its impact on parents’ emotional state and parenting practices and on the home
environment. Threats to well-being multiply several risk factors.
Culture refers to a society’s or group’s total way of life, including its customs, traditions, laws,
knowledge, beliefs, values, language, and physical products, from tools to artworks- all of the
behavior and attitudes that are learned, shared, and transmitted among members of a social
group. Culture is constantly changing, often through contact with other cultures.
An ethnic group consists of people united by a distinctive culture, ancestry, religion,
language, or national origin, all of which contribute to a sense of shared identity and shared
attitudes, beliefs, and values. Ethnic and cultural patterns affect development by their
influence on the composition of a household. Given diversity within groups, a term such as
black or Hispanic can be an ethnic gloss: an overgeneralization that obscures or blurs such
variations.
Normative and nonnormative influences
To understand similarities and differences in development, we need to look at two types of
normative influences: biological or environmental events that affect many or most people in
a society in similar ways and events that touch only certain individuals.
- Normative age-graded influences: highly similar for people in a particular age group.
The timing of biological events is fairly predictable within a normal range
- Normative history-graded influences: shape the behavior and attitudes of a historical
generation: a group of people who experiences the event at a formative time in their
lives.
o A historical generation is not the same as an age cohort: a group of people
born at about the same time
Nonnormative influences are unusual events that have a major impact on individual lives
because they disturb the expected sequence of the life cycle. They are either:
- Typical events that happen at an atypical time: death of a parent while young
- Atypical events: surviving a plane crash
On the other hand, people sometimes help create their own nonnormative life events
(deciding to have a baby in their mid-fifties).
Timing of influences: critical or sensitive periods
Imprinting is following the first moving object a new-born duckling sees when being born.
This instinctive bond is believed to be automatic and irreversible. When the natural course of
events is disturbed or none at all can form. Imprinting is the result of a predisposition toward
learning: the readiness of an organism’s nervous system to acquire certain information
during a brief critical period in early life. A critical period is a specific time when a given
event, or its absence has a specific impact on development. If a necessary event does not
occur during a critical period of maturation, normal development will not occur.
However, the concept of critical periods in humans is controversial. Because many aspects of
development, even in the physical domain, have been found to show plasticity, or
modifiability of performance, it may be more useful to think about sensitive periods.
The life-span developmental approach (Paul B. Balts)
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