Enlightenment
a) Definition: An intellectual, social, cultural and philosophical phenomena which
emphasized reason/logic as the primary source of authority, natural forces (science),
progress and education over religion and tradition.
b) Time and Place: Time frame is debated as some Enlightenment ideas date back to 1650,
but generally historians mark the beginning of the 18th century as the start of the Age of
Enlightenment and use the start of the French Revolution (1789) or the beginning of the
wars of Napoleon (1804-15) as the end of it. However French historians say that
Enlightenment as a time period went from 1715-1789. It took place in Western Europe,
specifically France, & further around the world, especially in the French colonies.
Influence of the Enlightenment extended to the 19th century and the French Revolution
among many other revolutions around the world as well
c) Relevance: The premise is that reason must replace tradition, especially in the form of
authority to ensure progress and modernity. Monarchs started to defend their crown not
through the premise of heritage or that they had a God-given title but rather that they are
‘enlightened’ and should therefore enlighten their people (enlightened despotism).
Science based on observation and experiments (deduction and induction). The
Watchmaker as the almighty intelligence (loss of seeing God as personal) - Deism.
Started the thought that the only source of knowledge is reason and therefore
emphasized the importance of natural law. Knowledge became more accessible to
people as many texts were translated in the local language (especially religious texts)
and more people started to read through the establishments of Salons, which were led
by women who were gatekeepers of this society. The publication of the first
Encyclopedie also allowed more people to gain more knowledge about nature and
society. It also inspired more political thought (key thinkers include Rousseau, Hobbes,
Voltaire, Montesquieu, Locke) and brought political modernization to the West. It is said
that the Enlightenment ideas inspired the American Constitution, especially the L'Esprit
de Lois 1748 and the Trias Politica by Montesquieu. This therefore inspired many to be
more involved in politics and scrutinize/ express their satisfactions. Religious movements
like Methodism, Freemasonry, which led to more religious toleration and freedom.
Enlightened despotism
a) Secular perspective by the hereditary rulers who wanted to spread the ideas of
Enlightenment through their decision-making, defending their actions of centralizing
power by stating they were enlightened rather than given the power by a deity.
b) Austria, Russia (to an extent), Prussia, France (least successful) in the 18th century
c) It centralized the power of the monarch through centralizing infrastructure, taxes and
laws, therefore limiting the ability to reform the hierarchical society. It also led to
resurgent forces of churches and the nobility. This later led to a lot of social unrest and
need for reform, as it divided the society further, which can be argued to be the source of
the French Revolution. Important enlightened despots were Frederick the Great,
, Catherine the Great, Joseph II (and also Maria Theresa to a point) and Louis XV who
failed to bring enlightened despotism to France.
Social contract
a) A radical, philosophical/social/political vision of society based on natural equality of man/
natural law.
b) 17th-18th century, though there is further influence up to now. At first it took place mainly
in Great Britain in France, but it also influenced the rest of the world later on. It was also
a part of the Age of Enlightenment.
c) The premise that power relations need to be based on consent/ agreement, on one hand
between citizens (giving up individual wills and morphing them into one, general will) and
on the other hand an agreement between the citizens and the government. This signifies
a clear break that leaders have God-given power/ right to rulership. Important thinkers
include Hobbes (basis of a modern authoritarian state), Rousseau (basis of a socialist
state) and Locke (basis of a liberal constitutional state).
Classical Liberalism
a) Ideological/ seeking liberation of the individual in political, societal and economic
spheres through constitutional freedom rights, parliamentary democracy, free trade and
limited government.
b) Western Europe and the US in the 19th century, but it distributed worldwide as time went
on.
c) Modernization, as there was a pursuit of political modernization through constitutionalism
with freedom rights and democracy.
Establishing social institutions based on meritocratic and individualistic human values
(importance on promoting public education) and in the economic sphere promoting free
trade, protection of property and a small government (laissez-faire politics) which led to a
lot of competition between countries.
Laissez-faire
a) Economic system where private enterprises are left to their own devices with minimal
intervention from the government (mostly free from intervention or subsidies, for
example). Derived from the French expression which means “let them be”. The purpose
of the government was to protect the property of people.
b) Originated with Physiocrates in France mid 18th century, but it also took place in GB,
Western Europe and the US, distributed to the rest of the world as well. Reached its
peak during the Age of Industrialization in the 1870s and it was popularized by Adam
Smith (The Wealth of Nations). Lasted until the end of the 19th century when the
popularity slowly started to decline due to merging of companies among other things.
