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Summary - Persoonlijkheidstheorie en onderzoek (P_BPEROND)
Personality theory and assessment summary and class notes full and detailed until lecture 11
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Personality theory and assessmentLecture 1
Introduction
Personality psychologist study personality on 3 levels
¡ Human nature : what makes us different from animals and how people are like all
other people.
¡ Individual and group differences :diversities in counties etc.
¡ Individual uniqueness: traits that seem to stand out as unique
There are two traditions of study
¡ Nomothetic: involves trying to make generalization about the world and understand
large-scale patterns ( mainly important for the first 2 levels )
¡ Idiographic: focuses on the description and details about one person (mainly used
for the third level of analysis).
There are also, two assumptions:
¡ Entity: the idea that personality is fixed and people cannot change it
¡ Incremental: the idea that people can change, if they are interested in doing so
Let’s now analyze in details the level
Level 1 : Human nature
What makes us different from animals is our ability to tell stories. Above all, dolphins seem
to be the ones that resemble us the most because they show similar personality traits and
there are a lot of individual differences between them ( just like us ).
Research also showed interest into how animals differ in terms of also active vs. passive
animals when it comes to a new environment or new situation. An “active” animal is an
animal that will stop if there is something new in his environment (pig that meets a pan on
his usual route) meanwhile “passive” animals will simply ignore it and keep on going.
Another example, is given by the rats in the middle of the water. In this case active rats were
exploring the environment around them wat more than passive animals (that would go
straightforward to the platform)
Level 2 : Individual and group differences
This analyzes how people are like some other people. For example research in this field
conducted studies about how women are more aggressive than man but just portray it in a
different manner than men. Another research talks about the gender difference in prison,
with men being present 6 times more than women. Men are believed to be more often in
prison due mainly personal characteristic traits or developmental issues.
Level 3: individual uniqueness
This level of analysis’s main topic is people that are like no other people. Brought as an
example, is the Ukrainian president. He took parts in movies, was a teacher, went against
,corruption and ended up president of the country itself. In these situations, he showed
great characteristics, like bravery. He is to be considered unique, cause unique are the
characteristics that he portrayed in this unique situation (Ukrainian assault)
Usually, personality analysis are not conducted on people we do not know anything of but
people that show us a lot of behaviors portrayed.
The existence of personality was In the past debated. Based on the incremental view it is
impossible to see the existence of something as stable as a concept of personality.
Instability of traits was also the outcome of the experiment of May and Hartshorne about
children’s honesty. This is the following experiment:
“in a study of children’s moral development, the American psychologists Hugh Hartshorne
and Mark A. May in 1928 placed 10- to 13-year-old children in situations that gave them the
opportunity to lie, steal, or cheat; to spend money on themselves or on other children; and
to yield to or resist distractions. The predictive power of personal and educational
background was low, and children were not found consistently honest or dishonest,
distractible, or altruistic. The most powerful predictor of children’s behaviour was what
other children around them were doing.”
Later on in 1968 Walter Mishel will also express how in his opinion personality did not exist
because there was no relation between an individuals’ behavior in two different situations.
Mishel came to this conclusion by analyzing data and finding a weak correlation between
people’s behaviors. He concludes that the situation is the one to determine how a person is
going to act.
In 1982 he is going to do a cross-situational study about the consistency of consciousness
(with Peake) and even then he found no consistency in a person’s conscientious behavior in
different situations, thus he concluded that consciousness also depends from the situation.
A reanalysis by Jackson and Paunonen in 1985, is going to show that by dividing in 2 groups
the 19 behaviors that Mishel analyzed there is eventually a high correlation between the 2.
Thus even if based on 1 behavior it is impossible to predict another behavior, based on a
number of behaviors it is possible to predict how someone behaves on average in a number
of other situations.
Thus maybe the low correlation obtained by Mishel was due an error of measurement or
too much different personality traits. Mishel today is considered as the “bad guy” by other
colleagues in his field.
People differ in so many ways:
o Physical
o Psychological
o Intellectual
o Emotions
o Habits
,And personality is considered a general non intellectual individual difference. General does,
though, translate into specific. Personality can be exhibited in the attitude that people have.
By looking at a very general trait of personality we can distinguish a high level trait called an
“affecter” or “ domain”. The subfactors are called “facets”. Then we have “contextualized
facets”, the ones that are portrayed in a specific context (contextualized behavior).
So by definition personality is :
n … is the set of traits and mechanisms within the individual that are organized and
relatively enduring and that influence ones interactions with, and adaptations to, the
intrapsychic, physical, and social environment
i. Thus there is always an environment that we are reacting to. The intrapsychic
environment is the past that everyone carries with them and that shapes our
thoughts about what goes on at a certain amount of time.
ii.
When people meet an environment they have decision rules, that might have
brought them to select/ avoid that specific environment and evoke some behaviors.
Decision rules determine how you are going to act upon the environment.
iii. People also adapt to an environment by changing in it the things that do not match
their personality, to make it easier for them to be in it.
Personality has influence on the environment and vice versa
The six domains of knowledge In personality psychology :
∆ Dispositional: how people differ in terms of traits
∆ Biological: biological and evolutionary domains
∆ Intrapsychic: the role of the unconscious
∆ Socio-cultural: how different cultures translate into different personalities
∆ Cognitive: conscious thoughts, beliefs, feelings and desires
∆ Adjustment: how personality helps us cope and adjust to our environment
Lecture 2
The dispositional domain I
, Studies about animals showed evidence for types. Differences between passive / active
animals comes from the way they react to the environment. Different dimensions suggest
quantitative and gradual differences.
Greeks, arabs and romans had a system based on which they would form elements, in terms
of nature and components of the body. Hypocratus was the first to suggest these and later
on Claudio came up with a system that combined all these elements into personality types.
Red: someone social
Yellow: ambitious, competitive and angry
Black : melancholic tendencies and worries a lot
White : lazy and relaxed
This idea stayed persisting in the middle east as well, where they performed bloodletting to
change personality and behaviors.
Today if we combine Extraversion and neuroticism and plot down the adjectives, they will
highly resemble the ancient model
William Sheldon in 1940 will look at body types and identify 3 cells that u might have when
you are an embryo:
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