Interactive storytelling
Lecture 1: Defining storytelling and narratives
1.1.2 Narrative, Plot and Story
A narrative is the representation of real or fictive events and situations in a time sequence. It refers to the
unchangeable material presented to the interactor. For this reason, the term “interactive narrative” is an
oxymoron, and instead “interactive storytelling” should be used. A narrative is unalterable, storytelling is an
interaction between the designer, platform, storyworld and interactor, and therefore changeable. Narrative
consists of a combination of 3 levels, the third one is only mentioned in the paper.
1. Story: the “what”. It is the sequence of events (or action), the chronological sequence of events on a
timeline (beginning, middle and end). It usually involves a character. What is really happening, despite
what you see/read, regardless of how it is being told?
2. Discourse: the “how”. It (re)presents the selected events that are presented. Discourse structures can
evoke certain emotions, surprise, curiosity and suspense. It is a result of the act of the story. How is
the story being told/represented?
3. Structure (only from the paper): “story” and “discourse” form a network. It includes story elements as
well as presentation features.
A narrative includes both a story and its telling (discourse).
A storyworld is, like said before, an interaction between the designer, platform, storyworld and interactor. It
includes all the props, characters, scenes and events set up by the designer for the interactor.
- Props are inanimate objects, which can be used in the storyworld.
- Events cause change, when launched by fulfilling some criteria. Is it any event that the computer can
demonstrate.
- Characters combine props and events: they are both objects and agents of change.
- Scenes are the surroundings which affect the props, and the characters inhabit.
A plot is a causal sequence of events. Plot events of plot points happen when an event is dramatically
significant, there is a narrative turn. This means that the event creates or releases the dramatic tension and
that it is related (causally or by subject matter) to the other experienced events. The plot is advancing when
the interactor is experiencing more plot events. The plot is stalled when this process ceases. If the interactor
deliberately stalls the plot, we call this obstruction.
A plot line is the manifestation of the plot. If the plot is predefined by the designer, we call this a predefined
plot. If the story can be different in each play, we call this a manifold story.
Lastly, a story means all the events that the interactor can experience while playing. A story must be interesting
to the audience, so they are willing to engage.
2.1.1.2 Narrative Forms
Aristotle recognizes 2 narrative forms, where the last two are not recognized by Aristotle:
1. Epic form: events are represented through verbal narration (diegesis). The story focuses on the
exploits of a solitary hero, and the story can be endlessly expanded. The motivations of the hero
remain simple.
2. Dramatic form: events are represented through the imitation of action (mimesis). The focus is on the
evolving networks of human relations, the actions are mental rather than physical. Events follow the
structure of the dramatic arc. It is more mature and complex than the epic, because it adds a
psychological layer to the characters. The characters are round and not flat.
3. Epistemic form: the story resembles detective stories. These stories consist of events that took place
in the past, investigation leads to their discovery. It is driven by the desire to know.
4. Soap opera: the story is almost infinite. The characters go through their own dramatic arcs, which can
be partly overlapping and sequential.
2.1.1.3 Dramatic Arc
The dramatic arc has had a strong influence on the Western theatre. It has been seen as an ideal structure for
well-formed plays, films and video games.
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,Aristotle made a distinction between tragedy and comedy. According to Aristotle, change (metabasis) is an
elemental part of any tragedy. It is the difference between the initial situation and the outcome. Within this
framework, the plot can change due to recognition and reversal, as seen in the following figure. Recognition is
the shift from not-knowing to knowing. Reversal is a turning point in the plot. The play has a central problem
that divides it to halves. The problem causes complications, which then get solved.
Gustav Freytag elaborates on this dramatic structure. The complication increases after the initial situation.
According to Freytag, the exciting force following is necessary to lead to the rise. The rising action increases the
complication and drama, until it peaks out in a climax. This is followed by a counteraction leading to a fall.
Before the end there is a final suspense that results in a catastrophe. The counteraction and final suspense are
optional according to Freytag.
2.1.3 Structuralism
Russian formalism divides a narrative into 3 layers (instead of the two: “what” and “how”):
1. Fabula: logically and chronologically related series of events caused or experienced by the characters
in the storyworld.
2. Sjužet: the finished arrangement (the plot) of the narrated events as they are presented to the reader.
3. Media/text: the surface of the story expressed in language signs.
This structuralist approach led to different models, like the morphology of Propp.
2.1.3.1 Propp’s Morphology of Russian Folktales
Stories have a set of characters, which are defined from the viewpoint of their significance to the course of
action. Vladimir Propp lists the following 7 character roles:
1. Villain: struggles against the hero, must be defeated by the hero.
2. Donor: prepares the hero or gives the hero some magical object. Gives advice/objects to help. Makes
sure the mission of the hero is a success.
3. Helper: helps the hero in their quest.
4. Princess: gives the task to the hero and is often sought for during the narrative. Someone who needs
saving/rescue. Does not need to be a real princess.
5. Dispatcher: makes the lack known and sends the hero off to their mission.
6. Hero: who departs on a search, meets the donor, and returns home. It is the key person, they need to
defeat the evil.
7. False hero: takes credit for the hero’s actions. They seem to be on the good side, but turn out to be
the helper of the villain.
2.1.4 Joseph Campbell and the Hero’s Journey
Joseph Campbell proposes the monomyth. This is the idea that all mythic narratives are variations of a single
great story, which tells the journey of an archetypal hero shared by world mythologies. It is a cycle of 17 stages
from the innocent world of childhood to freedom. The journey has 3 phases:
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, 1. Separation phase: initiated by separation from the world of childhood when an adventure calls the
hero. The hero initially refuses, but with the help of a mentor the hero faces the threshold of the
known and unknown worlds. The hero is unprepared for the unknown world.
2. Initiation phase: initiated when descending into the unknown world. The hero will go through trials.
The “meeting with the goddess” leads the hero into temptation, which threatens the progress. Having
overcome the temptation, the hero is ready to meet the accrual villain. They are not ready yet and
suffer a defeat. This is the lowest point of the story, but leads to a turning point where the hero learns
and defeats the villain. The hero receives credit for their win at “apotheosis”, and gets called back to
the inner world. They, however, refuse to call to return.
3. Return phase: begins with a flight as the hero is chased by forces of the outer world towards the inner
world. An outside help rescues the hero and opens the way back to the inner world. As the story is
closing to end, the hero has become a master of both inner and outer worlds. This grants the hero the
freedom to live and the story to end.
The monomyth has been highly influential in shaping Hollywood movies and video games.
2.1.5 Kernels and Satellites
Seymour Chatman separated narrative content into two groups:
1. Kernels: refers to the essential and obligatory content of the story that guarantees the story’s
coherence/logic. They form the identity of the story. If we change a kernel, we will destroy the
narrative logic of the story which alters the story completely. In a story, this can be a crucial point
where the interactor choses their path. These are plot points.
2. Satellites: refers to a content that could be omitted or altered without changing the identity of the
story (e.g. it would not have mattered if Cinderella has one or two stepsisters). It embellishes the basic
plot. They are more malleable and allow easier interaction. These are pinch points.
4.3.1 Focalization
Focalization describes the relationship between the narrator or the text and the characters in the text. The
focalizator is the interactor, the one who perceives the story. Through which point of view do we look? There
are 2 possible relations:
1. Internal focalization: writer and character know the same (narrator = character), invasion into the
world of the character. Think of puzzle games, racing games and party games.
2. External focalization: character knows more than the narrator (narrator < character), demonstration
of the character’s actions and words, there is no insight into the thoughts and feelings of the
character. This is the most common and recognizable, for example in movies.
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