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Artikel van Dijk
Intergenerational continuity of crime among children of organized crime offenders
in the Netherlands
,Abstract
As existing literature on intergenerational continuity of criminal behavior is mainly based on data on
‘general’ ofenders and their children, the current study aims to improve our knowledge by looking at
intergenerational continuity of crime among a national sample of children of organized crime
ofenders.
Results show that:
almost half of the children of organized crime offenders have a criminal record.
Sons are signifcantly more at risk of ofending and this risk also increases strongly by age.
Furthermore, the results show the strongest intergenerational relation for violent crimes.
Gender of the convicted parent and timing of parental crime also seem to play a role in the
continuity.
With regard to the relative risk of offending, the results show that children of convicted
organized crime offenders are three times more at risk of offending compared to children in
the comparison group, even after controlling for the number of parental crimes.
In sum, there is a substantial risk of intergenerational continuity of criminal behavior among children
of organized crime offenders!
Future research would beneft from focusing on how criminal behavior in these specifc families is
transmitted to future generations.
Introduction
Children resemble their parents in many diferent ways. Research confrms that a wide range of
characteristics and behaviors are continued across generations. This continuity is also observed for
criminal behavior: studies show a substantial correlation between criminal behavior of parents and
their children.
Er is eerder onderzoek gedaan naar transgenerationele overdracht van criminaliteit, maar niet naar
organized crime
Organized crime comprises criminal groups engaging in e.g. drug trafcking, human smuggling, human
trafcking, frearms trading, trafcking stolen vehicles, organized fraud, and money laundering. The
defning characteristics of organized crime groups are their proft-driven nature and the seriousness of
the ofenses they commit.
Previous research on intergenerational continuity of crime
Over the last decades, there has been an increased and renewed interest in intergenerational
continuity of criminal behavior. A potential reason for this increased attention is the availability of
intergenerational datasets.
Although these and other intergenerational studies are relatively consistent in showing that children
of ofenders are at increased risk of ofending themselves, the strength of the association seems to be
dependent on specifc characteristics of parents and children, as well as on ofending characteristics
(e.g. gender of parents and children, timing and frequency of parental ofending, and ofense types).
,Gender
With regard to the gender of parents and children, existing multigenerational studies show that
intergenerational continuity of crime is strongest from mothers to daughters, followed by mothers to
sons, fathers to daughters, and fathers to sons [3].
A possible explanation for the higher risk of continuity from mothers to children is that
criminal behavior is less common for women, which may imply that women engaging in such
behavior might be more deviant.
Another explanation could be that mothers are more often the main caretakers of their
children and, therefore, maternal incarceration following conviction would be signifcantly
more disruptive for children than paternal incarceration.
Career and timing
Some multigenerational studies also paid attention to diferent dimensions of the parent’s criminal
career and examined how timing and frequency of parental crime afected ofspring ofending.
Research shows that with increasing numbers of parental crimes, the risk of intergenerational
continuity of crime in the next generation(s) increases consistently (e.g. [32, 38]). With regard to the
timing of ofenses over the life-course, several studies have shown that parental crime and violence
before the birth of the child does not lead to an increased risk of ofspring ofending, while parental
crime after the child’s birth does (e.g. [6, 32, 37]). These results seem to suggest that exposure to
violence or criminal behavior plays an important role in the intergenerational transmission of criminal
behavior. In addition, Van de Rakt and colleagues [32] found, based on CCLS data, that the risk of
intergenerational continuity is highest among children of which their father still commits crime after
their 18th birthday.
Violent
Although results are mixed, continuity from parents to children may also be dependent on the types
of ofenses committed by parents. that intergenerational continuity is stronger for violent than
nonviolent ofending.
Characteristics of organized crime and its perpetrators
Large multigenerational datasets previously used to study intergenerational continuity of criminal
behavior, are mostly based on ‘general’ ofenders and do not include more serious ofenders, such as
organized crime ofenders and their children. However, organized crime is expected to be
substantively diferent from ‘general’ crime in various ways:
, First, unlike general (and more individual) criminal behavior, organized crime relies on social
networks. Social networks may provide access to suppliers, coofenders, and proftable
criminal opportunities. Consequently, children of organized crime ofenders may grow up in a
social network environment that provides easy access into the world of organized crime.
Second, organized crime often involves more structured planning, preparation, and
coordination of criminal activities. This also implies that organized crime is typically a long-
term process, which often requires months of preparation time and multiple activities that
are scattered temporally as well as geographically, making coordination necessary
Third, the transnational character of many organized crime activities – and networks—is
unique [24]. This feature makes fnding suitable coofenders and cooperation even more
complex, and logistic procedures even more difcult
Fourth, many scholars point at the use of violence, but this is a contested issue since others
deny the necessity of violence as part of the defnition of organized crime, and claim that the
use of violence is overstated. Nevertheless, many authors view the use of (threats of)
violence as a critical aspect of organized crime
Waarom organized crime groter risico voor transgenerationele overdracht?
In sum, there are certain highly specifc characteristics to organized crime and its perpetrators.
The seriousness of the ofenses, their potentially violent character, as well as the involvement
of a broader social (familial) network may all indicate that children of these ofenders are at
high risk of intergenerational continuity of crime. After all, in previous studies the association
between parent and ofspring criminality was shown to be higher for more violent crimes (e.g.
[12, 37]).
In addition, we argue that organized crime may be more “visible” in the sense that children
may be more exposed to parental criminal behavior, since ofenders engaging in organized
crime at a particular moment in their lives are more often persistent ofenders with more
serious criminal history, compared to general ofenders
Furthermore, descriptive research suggests that children of organized crime ofenders seem to
grow up in very diferent, problematic environments e.g. ‘closed’ family systems, where
money, drugs, and weapons are available and where the use of aggression and violence is
common
Current study
The current study aims to improve empirical knowledge by specifcally exploring the extent of
intergenerational continuity of crime among children of organized crime ofenders. The main research
questions addressed in this paper are:
1. How many children of organized crime ofenders have a criminal record?
