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Summary Introduction into Research Methods (Lectures, readings, online modules)
- Instelling
- Universiteit Leiden (UL)
This document contains a summary of all lectures, readings, workgroups, and online modules.
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Introduction to Research Methods SumaryModel 1 Foundations of Research
Objectives
1. Understand the importance of research methods
2. Be able to define the basic terminology and fundamental concepts of social science research
3. Be able to describe the main steps of the research cycle
4. Identify, describe and apply the main concepts of the research cycle
GrØnmo, S. (2019). Social Research Methods (1st edition)
Chapter 1
Social science is based on systematic research about phenomena and conditions in society. It has
been important for our identity and self-understanding, and for our understanding of interpersonal
relations and society gras a whole. Social science cannot always explain everything, but it can make
things clearer or contribute to debate.
Social science deal with human beings in different types of societies. It can look at individuals, groups
or society as a whole. Social sciene has been specialised into social sciences (disciplines) such as
sociology, political science, economics, psychology etc. These disciplines have unclear and unstable
boundaries, as they share certain types of elements.
Implications social science:
1. Reactivity / control effect
the research process may affect individuals or groups that are examined, so that their
behaviour during the study is different from their usual behaviour. Thus, the knowledge of
the behaviour that is obtained by the researchers may not be accurate and reliable.
2. Reflexivity
the researchers’ social background and social experiences may affect their perceptions and
interpretations of the phenomena that are examined. The knowledge developed by the
researchers may not only be a result of how these phenomena ‘really’ are, but also reflect
the researchers’ frame of reference and way of thinking.
Positivism assumes that social scientific knowledge is developed through systematic studies of
‘positively given’ empirical facts about existing phenomena in society. These phenomena exist as
facts and cannot be changed by being observed and examined. There is a difference between facts
and values. Society is observed from the outside and therefore positivists believe that social science
can relate to facts in society in the same way as natural science relates to facts in nature.
Critique:
People are influenced through social conditions (which can change at any time in unexpected
ways), meaning that their behaviour cannot be predicted.
Society cannot be observed from outside (there are no universal laws and regularities in
society). The understanding requires involvement and empathy with peoples lives and
activities.
It is not possible for social science to be outside society. Research on society can affect and
interfere in people’s actions and society’s development.
,Qualitative research = non-numerical/-metric data
Quantitative research = numerical/metric data
Empirical studies = facts --> how society is
Normative studies = values --> how society should be
Postmodernists believe that there are no consistent patterns that can be defined as reality or social
facts. Social reality is fragmented, heterogeneous and diverse. Individuals have conflicting instincts
and wishes. You cannot understand society in a rational way. However, this is not true. Rational
approaches can be used to develop more reliable knowledge about social reality, and research
results can be discussed rationally and critically.
Social phenomena are assumed to exist independently of people’s consciousness and can therefore
be seen as facts. However, social science should contribute to the improvement of society, and for
this we need values.
Ontology = social science is based on truth as a primary value (study of being, existence
and reality)
Epistemology = perceptions of truth in social science are theoretically, methodologically and
contextually founded (study of knowledge)
Methodology = evaluations of truth in social sciences are based on rational and logical
criteria
Chapter 2
Method is a planned approach to achieving a particular goal or gather knowledge on a particular
phenomenon. Methods are guidelines to ensure that scientific activities are carried out the correct
way. Methods should be based on general principles of logic and language use:
1. Precision
Clarify and define the concepts that are central to the discussion.
2. Validity
Reasoning is based on valid assumptions, and that there is a logical coherence between these
assumptions and the conclusion that the reasoning leads to.
3. Completeness
All relevant factors must be taken into consideration. The reasoning must be clear, but not
one-sided.
A method refers to a specific procedure, while methodology refers to fundamental approaches or
ways of thinking and understanding that utilise different methods. Methodology is part of the logic
that develops knowledge.
Methodological individualism
entails that all social science knowledge must be based on information about the individual. MICRO
Methodological collectivism
assumes that information about individuals is not sufficient as a basis for knowledge (e.g. norms are
not taken into account). MACRO
Methodological situationism
is based on the assumption that social action cannot be regarded as individual actions performed by
, separate individuals, but rather as interactions between several individuals. With this the context of
the situation should also be considered (= interaction between individuals in certain social
situations). MESO
Methodological relationism
emphasises the importance of relationships in a broader sense (actors and structures). MESO
Idiographic studies = knowledge valid only for the specific phenomena that are studies,
limited in time and space
Nomothetic studies = knowledge from specific studies generalized to larger patterns and
relationships, not limited in time and space
Empirical evidence is information, facts or data about actual conditions in society based on our
sensory experience (sight, hearing etc). The evidence is based on our experience of these social
conditions. This can have the reflexivity problem discusses in chapter one.
Social science theory is based on reflection on social conditions. It is a set or system of concepts and
relationships that are in a mutual relationship with each other, and which summarize and arrange
preconditions, assumptions and knowledge about society.
Deductive design from theory to empirical evidence theory testing quantitative
Inductive design from empirical evidence to theory theory development qualitative
Chapter 4
A research question tries to answer a question that is relevant, important and original. It brings new
knowledge, and therefore contributes to the discussion. A research question builds of off previous
research to create insights, knowledge and experiences to contribute to new studies/perspectives.
Quantitative studies use hypotheses (deductive), while qualitative uses more general questions
(inductive). In social science research questions are questions which:
Focus on interesting and important phenomena in society
Lead to new studies of these social phenomena
Point to fruitful approaches for such studies
Contribute to further development of the relevant research fields for these studies
You can distinguish different research question through:
1. Generality
How specific do you want your research question? (e.g. time period or geographical area)
2. Complexity
The number of concepts, phenomena, or relationships that are included.
3. Precision
The degree of clarity and accuracy.
--> Is there a relationship between education and income?
--> There is a strong positive relationship between the level of education and the
level of income. (= more of a statement).
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