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SUMMARY D&E
PSYCHOLOGY
IBP year 1 | semester 2 | block 3
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Contents
Chapter 2: prenatal development and the newborn period................................................................................4
Prenatal development.....................................................................................................................................4
Hazards to prenatal development...................................................................................................................7
Chapter 3: biology and behavior........................................................................................................................9
Nature and nurture.........................................................................................................................................9
Behavior genetics.........................................................................................................................................11
Brain development.......................................................................................................................................12
Chapter 4: theories of cognitive development.................................................................................................14
Piaget’s theory..............................................................................................................................................14
Information-processing theories..................................................................................................................16
Core-knowledge theories.............................................................................................................................17
Sociocultural theories...................................................................................................................................18
Dynamic-systems theories...........................................................................................................................19
Chapter 5: seeing, thinking and doing in infancy............................................................................................20
Perception.....................................................................................................................................................20
Auditory perception.....................................................................................................................................21
Motor development......................................................................................................................................22
Habituation...................................................................................................................................................22
Cognition......................................................................................................................................................24
Chapter 6: development of language and symbol use.....................................................................................25
Language development................................................................................................................................25
The process of language acquisition............................................................................................................26
Theoretical issues in language development...............................................................................................29
Chapter 7: conceptual development.................................................................................................................29
Understanding who or what.........................................................................................................................29
Understanding why, where, when and how many.......................................................................................32
Chapter 8: intelligence and academic achievement.........................................................................................34
What is intelligence?....................................................................................................................................34
Measuring intelligence.................................................................................................................................34
IQ scores as predictors of important outcomes...........................................................................................35
Genes, environment, and the development of intelligence.........................................................................35
Alternative perspectives on intelligence......................................................................................................36
Acquisition of academic skills: reading, writing and mathematics.............................................................37
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Chapter 9: theories of social development.......................................................................................................39
Chapter 10: emotional development................................................................................................................39
The development of emotions......................................................................................................................39
Understanding emotions..............................................................................................................................41
Emotion regulation.......................................................................................................................................42
Temperament...............................................................................................................................................42
Chapter 11: attachment to others and development of the self.......................................................................43
The caregiver-child attachment relationship...............................................................................................44
Chapter 12: the family.....................................................................................................................................46
Family structure...........................................................................................................................................46
Family dynamics..........................................................................................................................................48
Chapter 13: peer relationships.........................................................................................................................50
Friendships...................................................................................................................................................50
Peer interactions...........................................................................................................................................52
Status in the peer group................................................................................................................................53
Chapter 14: moral development.......................................................................................................................54
Moral judgement..........................................................................................................................................54
Prosocial behavior........................................................................................................................................57
Antisocial behavior......................................................................................................................................58
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Chapter 2: prenatal development and the newborn
period
While in the womb, fetuses can detect a range of stimuli coming from outside and inside the mother’s
body.
Prenatal development
4th century B.C. Aristotle: preformation (individual already preformed) vs. epigenesis: emergence of new
structures and functions during development (he believed this).
Conception
Gametes: germ cells, contain only half of the genetic material (sperm and egg). Produced through meiosis:
gametes receive only one member from each of the 23 chromosome pairs. Sperm: pointed head with
genetic material and long tail. Process of reproduction:
Launching of egg from one of the ovaries into adjoining fallopian tube - conception
Egg emits chemical “come hither” substance
Sperm travels toward egg (about 6 hours) – high failure rate (tangled up, wrong tube, genetic or
other defects)
Once one sperm entered egg, membrane is sealed through chemical reaction
Egg is fertilized: zygote
Developmental processes
Zygote embryo fetus. 1. From zygote to embryo: cell division called mitosis. Within 12 hours,
zygote divides into two parts, each with full genetic material. Continued division over 38 weeks to become
newborn. 2. Cell migration: movement of newly formed cells away from point of origin. 3. Cell
differentiation: embryo’s cells, embryonic stem cells, start to specialize in structure and function. What
factors determine this? Which genes are switched on and location. 4. Selective death of certain cells:
apoptosis. Death preprogrammed for these cells. Influence of hormones: androgens (s.a. testosterone)
determine boy (present) or girl (absent).
Early development
4th day after conception: cells become hollow sphere with bulge of cells, inner cell mass. Identical twins:
splitting of inner cell mass. Fraternal twins: two eggs released and fertilized. End of 1st week:
implantation – zygote embeds itself in uterine lining and becomes dependent. Inner cell mass becomes
embryo, rest of cells become elaborate support system including amniotic sac and placenta. 2 nd week: inner
cell mass divides into 3 layers. Top layer becomes nervous system, nails, teeth, inner ear, lens of eyes and
outer surface of skin. Middle layer becomes muscles, bones, circulatory system, inner layers of skin and
other internal organs. Bottom layer becomes digestive system, lungs, urinary tract and glands. U-shaped
groove forms down center of top layer: neural tube. End will develop into brain and rest will be spinal
cord. Amniotic sac: membrane filled with clear, watery fluid in which fetus floats. Placenta: permits
exchange of materials carried in bloodstreams, prevents blood from mixing. Oxygen, nutrients, minerals
and some antibodies are transported. Placental membrane also serves as defensive barrier, not perfect. Also
production of hormones s.a. estrogen to increase flow of maternal blood to uterus and progesterone to
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suppress uterine contractions that could lead to premature death. Umbilical cord: blood vessels from
placenta-embryo and back.
An illustrated summary of prenatal development
Areas near head develop earlier: cephalocaudal development.
4 weeks
o Curved embryo, head and tail-like structures almost touching
o Face gradually emerges
o Primitive heart visible – beating and circulating blood
o Arm bud and less distinctive leg bud
5,5 weeks
o Nose, mouth and palate differentiate into different structures
8,5 weeks
o Nose and mouth almost fully formed
o Cleft palate: malformations of this area
9 weeks
o Bulging forehead – rapid brain growth
o Rudimentary ears and eyes forming
o Internal organs present
o Sexual differentiation started
o Ribs visible
o Fingers and toes emerged
o Nails are growing
o Spontaneous movements
11 weeks
o Heart has adult structure
o Developing spine and ribs
o Developing major divisions of the brain
16 weeks
o Lower part of body
o Much more movement, some reflexes
o Intense kicks
o External genitalia substantially developed
18 weeks
o Very fine hair
o Greasy coating to protect skin
o Components of facial expressions present
o Rapid weight gain
o Decrease in movements
28 weeks
o Brain and lungs sufficiently developed
o Eyes can open and move (REM)
o Auditory system functioning – hearing and reacting
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o Neural activity like that of newborn
o Dramatic growth
Fetal behavior
Normal formation of organs and muscles depends on fetal activity, rehearsing behavioral repertoire needed
at birth.
Movement
5-6 weeks: spontaneous movements, increasingly complex. One of earliest distinct patterns are hiccups.
Theory is that it is burping reflex. Swallowing reflex: tongue movements (drinking/swallowing) promote
normal development of palate, helps digestive system mature properly swallowing amniotic fluid.
Movement of limbs, fingers, grasping umbilical cord, move head and eyes and yawn. Movements become
more integrated. How much fetus moves is consistent, extends into postnatal period. More active = greater
emotion regulation. To be able to breathe: lungs and rest of respiratory system (muscles to move
diaphragm) must be mature and functional. Exercising by “fetal breathing”. It increases in rate and
stability.
Behavioral cycles
Rest-activity cycles: high activity alternated with no activity. Very stable during 2 nd half of pregnancy, fetus
moves only 10-30% of the time. Long term patterns s.a. circadian rhythms appear. Near end of pregnancy,
fetus is in quiet and active (REM) sleep states like newborn for ¾ of the time.
Fetal experience
Sight and touch
Visual experience is minimal. Tactile stimulation is result of own activity. Hands contact other parts of
body, s.a. mouth. Fetus also bumps against uterus walls more often and respond to maternal movement
vestibular systems (sensory apparatus in inner ear providing information about movement and balance) is
functioning.
Taste
Amniotic fluid contains variety of flavors. Some are liked better than others (sweet). Fetuses ingested more
fluid when it was sweetened.
Smell
Amniotic fluid takes on smell from what mother has eaten. It comes into contact with odor receptors
through fatal breathing.
Hearing
Womb is filled with noise, many maternal sounds. Prominent and frequent is mother’s voice. During last
trimester, external noise elicits change in fetal movements and heart rate. When at term, fetus can
distinguish between music and speech.
Fetal learning
Habituation: decrease in response to repeated or continued stimulation. Dishabituation: when perceptible
change in stimulus occurs, infant becomes interested again. 30 weeks: habituation to visual and auditory
stimuli, central nervous system sufficiently developed. Newborns remember about their fetal experience,
