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Leadership and Management is a combination of organizational behavior and Human Resource Management
Leadership is a social in uence in which a leader steers members of a group towards a goal ⇢ combination of nature and nurture
Trait theories of leadership (up to 40s): Who is the leader?
suggests that leaders are born, traits such as extraversion, conscientiousness and openness are likely to make good leaders. Traits can predict leader emergence,
not e ectiveness
Styles and Behaviors (late 40s-60s): What does a leader do?
Behavior is observable and can be changed.
Ohio state university research: Initiating structure (emphasis on work goals and accomplishing tasks, important for organizational performance) & consideration
(friendly and supportive towards followers, important for follower satisfaction and motivation)
⇢ seen as independent continuums
University of Michigan research: identi ed 4 categories of leadership behavior: Goal emphasis and work facilitation (job-centered / similar to initiating structure)
as well as leader support and interaction facilitation (employee-centered / similar to consideration) ⇢ seen as one continuum
Contingency approach (late 60s - 80s): it all depends…
leadership e ectiveness depends on situational factors: leader traits, experience, skills…, follower capabilities, motivation…, situation task, structure,
environment…
Leadership Least-preferred-coworker scale (LPC): measure whether a person is task or relationship oriented on bipolar adjectives.
Low LPC ⇢ task over people / High LPC ⇢ people over task
LPC scale could predict e ectiveness, if 3 situational factors are considered: (1) Leader-member relationship, (2) Task structure, (3) Position power
Vision, Inspiration (> 1990s): Where do we want to go?
Charismatic leaders: can inspire and motive followers, have clear vision, willing to take personal risk, sensitive to followers needs. They in uence followers, by: (1)
articulate attractive vision, (2) communicate high performing expectations, (3) set an example, (4) engage in emotion-inducing. Charisma works best, when (1)
stress and uncertainty in environment, (2) upper level leader, (3) followers have low self-esteem
Ethical & servant (>2000): What about the moral side?
Meaning, Values (>2015): How do we pursue our purpose?
Purpose: becomes more important in using to mobilizing and motivating people for the pursuit of organizations purpose
Situational leadership theory: 4 di erent leadership styles in a matrix of 2 factors (Consideration and Initiating structure / supportive behavior and task behavior):
Selling, Telling, Delegating, Participating. Used of leaders to understand about employees performance readiness and adapt leadership style to given maturity level.
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, Motivation is the process whereby goal-directed activity is 1. Motivation in words: Promotion and Prevention-oriented leader communication in
instigated and sustained. times of crisis.
Purpose: How should leaders lead in crisis and what should they communicate to be
3 levels of motivation: intensity (how hard person tries), direction endorsed in these times?
(of behavior), persistence (maintaining e ort) Foundation: Regulatory t theory proposes that individuals will pursue goals that sustain
their regulatory focus → leader might be seen as e ective, if communication ts focus.
Types of Motivation: intrinsic (for own sake) and extrinsic (to Concept:
acquire rewards or avoid punishment) Study:
Study 1: Assessed how leader comm-
Behavioral motivation theory: Skinner’s operant conditioning: uni cation impacts success in varying
Behavior is a function of consequences. Reinforcement economic situations. Archival study of
strengthens behavior and Punishment weakens behavior (can US presidential endorsement.
temporarily suppress or lead to undesirable e ects) Coded promotion- and prevention-
focused words.
Needs theory: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Study 2: Lab experiment. 2x2 design:
Lower needs need to satis ed in order to reach higher needs. leader communication x crisis.
Order: Physiological & Safety (Lower Order External), Love/ Participants get prevention or promo-
Belonging, Esteem, Self Actualization (Higher Order Internal) tion focused speech with task after.
Promotion focused speech partici-
Needs theory: McClellands Acquired Needs theory: pants scored higher on concentration
There are 3 critical needs that explain motivation: (1) Need for task.
Achievement, (2) Need for Power, (3) Need for A liation. Good Study 3: scenario experiment.
Motivation leaders tend to be high on power and low on a liation. Argued to 2x2 design: leader communication x
be subconscious crisis. Participants are presented a
scenario and need to advise top
Cognitive theory: Expectancy theory: management on who to hire.
Describes the following ow: Individual e ort → Performance Motivation to realize plan was higher with promotion-oriented communication.
(appraisal) → Organizational reward → Personal goals. Findings: in crisis moderate the e ects of regulatory orientation of leader communication on
Theory states, that there are di erent relationships between the leader endorsement. In crisis, promotion-oriented leaders communication leads to higher
steps and explains why some employees have low motivation: (1) follower motivation and leader endorsement.
Expectancy (max e ort not always need to good appraisal), (2) Limitations: authors only test endorsement, not e ectiveness. Motivation as mediator.
Instrumentality (good performance not always leads do rewards), Associated crisis only with negativity and uncertainty. US presidents study not easily
(3) Valence (organizational rewards not always lead to personal generalizable.
goals)
2. The interplay between goal intentions and implementation intentions
Cognitive theory: Adams Equity theory: Purpose: To investigate the e ects of implementation intention on goal achievement,
Our perception of fairness of output and input ratio determines examining whether the strength of Goal and activation intentions moderates the relationship
motivation when comparing ourselves with similar others, previous between implementation intentions and goal achievement.
self or own expectations. Three states: Equity (Persons outcomes Foundation: Goal intentions (what one wants to achieve), Implementation intentions (the
input = Referents outcome input), Underpayment Inequity (Persons behavior one displays to reach the goal, brings about unconscious action control, if person
outcomes input < Referents outcome input), Overpayment inequity has if-then plan and goal intention is strong and activated)
(Persons outcomes input > Referents outcome input) Concept:
Restore equity by: change input or output, distort perceptions, there are two moderators to whether implementation intentions respect people’s goals.
leave.. H1: Strong implementation intentions only occur with strong goal intentions
H2: Strong implementation intentions depend on the activation of goal intentions
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